A    Thousand    Years 
of  Jewish    History 


From  the  Days  of  Alexander  the  Great 
To    the    Moslem    Conquest    of    Spain 


WITH   TWO    MAPS 


BY  THE 

REV.  MAURICE  H.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  PH   D. 

Author  of  "People  of  the  Book," 

"Selected  Addresses,"  etc. 


3 


A  Thousand  Years 
of  Jewish  History 

From  the  Days  of  Alexander  the  Great 
To  the  Moslem  Conquest  of  Spain 

WITH    TWO    MAPS 


BY  THE 

REV.  MAURICE  H.  HARRIS,  A.M.,  Pn.D 

Author  of  "  People  of  the  Book," 
"Selected  Addresses,"  etc 


NEW    YORK: 

PUBLISHED    BY    THE   AUTHOR,    10    BAST   129TH    STREET 
1904 


Copyright    1904,  by  M»«rice  H.  Harrif 


PMBSS  or  PHILIP  cow» 

4*9   FIFTH   AVBHUK 
NBW  YORK 


FOREWORD 


"If  a  literature  is  called  rich  in  the  possession  of  a  few  classic 
tragedies,  what  shall  we  say  to  a  national  tragedy  lasting 
for  fifteen  hundred  years  in  which  the  poets  and  the  actors 
were  also  the  heroes."  — ZUNZ 

When  the  impatient  youth  demands,  like  the  heathen 
from  Hillel,  a  "definition"  of  Judaism,  bid  him  "go 
and  learn  "  the  history  of  the  Jew.  Let  him  follow  the 
fascinating  story  from  hoar  antiquity,  when  the  obscure 
Hebrews,  "leaving  kindred  and  father's  house,"  took 
a  bold  and  new  departure  for  the  land  that  God  would 
show — the  land  that  would  show  God. 

Point  to  the  colossal  figure  of  Moses  on  Sinai,  "  great- 
est of  the  prophets,"  who  gave  the  first  uplifting 
impulse  with  his  Ten  Words  of  Faith  and  Duty.  Trace 
with  him  the  soul  struggle  of  this  "  smallest  among  the 
nations  "  to  reach  the  truth  of  divinity — beginning  with 
a  crude  conception  that  became  steadily  exalted  and 
clarified  with  each  successive  age,  until,  at  last,  the  idea 
is  realized  of  an  all-pervading  Spirit,  with  "righteousness 
and  justice  as  the  pillars  of  His  throne,"  and  Whom 
"  the  heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain." 

Make  clear  to  him  how  the  revelation  of  the  divine 
will  came  to  be  expressed  in  Law.  And,  how  the 
preservation  and  development  of  this  Law,  in  the  inter- 
preting hands  of  prophets,  scribes,  rabbis,  poets  and 
philosophers,  became  henceforth  the  controlling  motif 
of  the  history  of  the  Jew,  his  modus  vivendi,  whether 
under  Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Ara- 
bians or  Franks.  Help  him  to  see  that  through  it  the 
Jew  held  in  his  keeping  the  religious  fate  of  Orient  and 


Occident,  that  took  from  him  their  respective  impres- 
sions of  Islamism  and  Christianity. 

Let  him  see  the  "God-intoxicated"  teaching  his 
message  by  living  it ;  the  Suffering  Servant  whose  mar- 
tyrdom brought  healing  to  his  smiters. 

Then,  perhaps,  he  may  understand  that  no  one  defi- 
nition can  completely  express  the  Faith  of  the  Jew  and 
his  place  in  the  divine  economy.  But  with  this  glimpse 
of  his  history  the  grandeur  of  his  inheritance  will  sink 
into  his  consciousness,  becoming  part  of  himself,  and 
he  will  be  thrilled  with  the  tremendous  responsibility 
devolving  upon  him  as  a  member  of  the  priest-nation, 
the  witnesses  of  God,  whose  mission  was  and  is  to 
"  bring  light  to  the  Gentiles — that  salvation  may  reach 
to  the  ends  of  the  earth." 


NOTE. 

While  this  is  an  independent  work,  it  is  at  the  same 
time  intended  to  continue  the  history  of  Israel  where 
the  third  volume  of  the  "  People  of  the  Book  "  closed. 
Indeed,  it  has  been  written  at  the  request  of  teachers 
who  have  used  that  manual  of  Biblical  History.  It  will 
also  be  found  suitable  for  Post-Graduate  Classes  and 
Study  Circles. 

The  Chautauqua  plan  has  been  followed  of  confining 
all  references  to  works  or  translations  in  the  English 
language.  Yet  these  will  enable  the  advanced  student 
to  carry  research  further.  For  fuller  details  generally, 
the  student  is  referred  to  Graetz's  "  History  of  the 
Jews,"  to  which  this  work  has  been  most  indebted. 


OO^TTIBIbTTS- 


BOOK    I.—  JUDEA   A  VASSAL   STATE 

Chap.  I.— The  Close  of  the  Persian  Rule    -  -        9 

"       II. -Greek  and  Jew  16 

"       III.— Judea  Fights  for  its  Faith         -  -      21 

"       IV. — Daniel  and  the  Apocrypha  28 

"       V. — Judea  Fights  for  its  Independence  -                  36 

"       VI.— In  the  Diaspora  42 

BOOK  II.— JUDEA    INDEPENDENT 

Chap.  VII. — Pharisees  and  Sadducees      -  49 

"       VIII.-A  Royal  House  Again  -      57 

"       IX.— Rival  Claimants  for  the  Throne  -                       61 

"       X. — Judea  under  Roman  Suzerainty  -           -      64 

"       XL— Herod  68 

"       XIL— Hillel        -  -      74 

"       XIIL— Herod's  Successors  79 

BOOK    III.— JUDEA    UNDER    ROME 

Chap.  XIV.— The  Regime  of  the  Procurators  -           -      83 

"       XV.— Jesus  of  Nazareth      -  87 

"       XVL— A  Jewish  King  Once  More  -      95 

"       XVIL— The  Alexandrian  School  100 

"       XVIII.— Philo    -  -    104 

"      XIX.— The  Last  Procurators  109 

"      XX.— Judea's  War  with  Rome  -    113 

"      XXL— The  Siege     -  116 

"      XXIL— The  Fall  of  Jerusalem  -      120 

"      XXIII.— The  Works  of  Josephus  -           -         123 


BOOK    IV.— THE    TALMUDIC    ERA 

Chap.  XXIV.— Jochanan  ben  Zakkai  120 

"      XXV.— The  Palestinian  Academies                        -  135 

"      XXVI.— The  Development  of  Christianity           -  141 

"      XXVII.— Rome's  Regime  After  Judea's  Overthrow  146 

"       XXVIII.— Akiba      -                        -  150 

"      XXIX.— Last  Struggle  for  Liberty                         -  154 

"       XXX.— The  Mishna  160 

"       XXXI.— Babylonia  and  its  Schools                         -  170 

"       XXXII.— Christianity  the  State  Church  of  Rome  178 

"       XXXIII.— The  Division  of  the  Roman  Empire     -  184 

"       XXXIV.— The  Talmud     -  189 

BOOK    V.— JAPHETH    AND    SHEM 

Chap.  XXXV.— The  Beginning  of  the  Jewish  Middle  Ages  197 

"       XXXVI.— In  the  Spanish  Peninsula        -  203 

"       XXXVII. -Arabia                                                       -  208 

"       XXXVIII.— Mahomet  213 

"       XXXIX.— Islam  and  the  Jews          -                       -  218 


BOOK  I. 
JUDEA  A  VASSAL  STATE 


f   dA 

"/    QiA^^^^^^ 


f2 


PERSIA 

B.C.B. 

Cyrus  conquers 
the  Babyloni- 
ans   536 

Cambyses 529 

Darius 522 


CHAPTER    I. 

CLOSE  OF  THE  PERSIAN  RULE. 
W 


Xerxes 


485 


Artaxerxes    I 

(Longimanus;  461 


Darius  II  (Ochus  424 
Artaxerxes  II 

Mnemon    ...  404 
Artaxerxes     III 

(Ochus) 358 

Alexander,     the 

Greek,     over- 

throwsthePer-. 

sian  Empire..  332 


Return  of  Ju- 
dah  from  Ex- 
ile 


536 


Second   Temple 
rebuilt 516 

Esther  and  Mor- 
decai    485 


Ezra  goes  to  Je- 
rusalem   458 

Nehemiah's  first 
visit 445 

Nehemiah  Gov- 
ernor of  Judea  432 


Judea  subject  to 
Greek  rule  ...  332 


FAMOUS 
CONTEMPORARIES 

FLOURISHED  B.C.« 


Gautama  Buddha  500 
Confucius..       .  500 


Socrates 


450 


Xenophon 400 


'    < 

The  story  covered  by  the  early  dates  in  this 
is  not  yet  post-Biblical.     It  is  already  told  in  the  later 
Books  of   Ezra,    Nehemiah,   Haggaj^and   Zechgriah 


. 

' 


ta 


The  history  of  this  volume  begins  with  theji 
close  of  the  life-work  of  these  men. 

The  restoration  of  the  Jews  to  Judea  did  not  mate- 
rialize as  gloriously  as  Isaiah  in  Babylon  had  prefigured 


10  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

/ AJUtWlt/    iLAutA^     4jfUt   CkM$A4     A**  "       *•" 

s)  in  his  sublime  addresses.  (Isaiah  xl-xlviii)  Life's  reali- 
zations very  often  disappoint  their  anticipations. 
Cyrus. opened  the  door;  but  only  a  poor  remnant  re- 
^ Turned  to  a  poor  land.  Even  then,  enemies  made  their 
appearance,  envious  of  the  royal  grant,  and  plotted 
against  their  welfare.  So  it  took  many  years  to  re- 
build the  Temple  and  many  more  to  rebuild  Jerusalem 
and  to  reorganize  a  new  community.  This  service 
we  owe  to  Nehemiah. 

After  the  chronicle  of  Nehemiah's  service  in  plac- 
ing the  Jewish  colony  on  a  working  basis,  we  are  told 
hardly  anything  more  of  the  doings  of  Israel  in  this 
epoch.  Either  there  was  no  further  history  of  the  Jews 
under  Persian  sway,  or  it  has  never  been  told.  There 
is  a  silence  of  about  a  hundred  years.  One  reason  for 
this  silence  of  course,  is  that  the  Jews  had  no  separate 
political  life.  What  there  is  to  tell  can  be  disposed 
of  in  a  few  sentences. 

We  infer  from  the  sixty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah 
that  they  suffered  during  the  campaigns  of  the  two  Ar- 
taxerxes  against  Egypt.  We  know  that  some  were  ban- 
ished to  the  Caspian  Sea  because  they  were  implicated 
in  a  wide-spread  insurrection  against  the  fast  declining 
Persia,  instigated  by  the  different  peoples  settled 
around  the  Mediterranean  shore.  We  are  told  further 
that  an  upstart  named  Bagoas  heavily  taxed  the  Jews 
and  made  the  excuse  of  a  quarrel  over  the  priesthood, 
to  desecrate  their  Temple. 

That  is  really  all.  When  this  intriguer  attempted 
to  place  his  own  candidate  on  the  Persian  throne  the 
knell  had  been  rung.  Persia's  days  were  numbered. 
Like  its  Babylonian  predecessor,  it  had  been  "weighed 


CLOSE    OF    THE    PERSIAN   RULE.  II 

in  the  balance  and  found  wanting."  The  Greek  forces 
of  Alexander  were  advancing  and  about  the  year  332 
the  Persian  dynasty,  founded  by  Cyrus — let  us  say 
the  Great — passed  away. 

But  silent  though  the  period  was  in  external  doings, 
it  was  a  stirring  time  in  Israel  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  experience  of  the  soul.  When  we  turn  to  the 
religious  life  of  the  Jews,  the  epoch  apparently  so 
barren,  is  freighted  with  significance.  Great  achieve- 
ments are  here  disclosed  behind  the  historian's  silence. 

To  tell  the  religious  story,  we  must  go  back  to  Ezra 

^JjUx^kgain,  Ezra  was  the  father  of  the  SCRIBES.     A  scribe 

^  \vas  not  merely,  as  the  name  might  imply,  one  who 

copied  the  writings  of  others,  but  one  who  expounded 

them.     The  Pentateuch  which  contained  many  codes 

of  law  came  to  be  called  The  Law  as  a  whole.  (Torah) 

We  shall  learn  how  later  this  term  included  the  vaster 

code  that  was  gradually  deduced   from  the  Biblical 

books.    This  is  the  age  then  of  Legalism,  when  JUDA- 

_  ISM   IS  INTERPRETED  AS  LAW. 

"  Without  explaining  just  now  the  significance  of 
'presenting  our  religion  through  the  medium  of  law, 
we  can  attribute  the  fact  to  the  following  causes:  In 
ancient  times  Religion  and  State  were  one,  so  that 
P3*™0^8111  merged  into  piety  and  treason  into  infidel- 
ity.  Hence  the  Pentateuch  contains  laws  touching 
the  civil  as  well  as  spiritual  relations,  and  regulated 
affairs  both  secular  and  sacred.  For  example,  it 
contains  laws  about  servants,  agriculture^  a  war  code, 
laws  of  poverty  and  inheritance,  in  fact  every  need 
that  entered  the  civilization  of  the  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  contains  the  Decalogue,  the  festival  regula- 


12  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

tions,  the  Law  of  Holiness  (Levit.  xvii-xxvii).  and 
exhortations  to  noble  living.  It  is  beautiful  to  notice 
how  the  jrioraj_  pervades  the  secular  and  gives  to  all 
a  sanctifying  touch. 

Thus  the  scribes  of  this  latter  day  had  to  interpret 
Scripture  for  the  daily  affairs  of  public  life  as  well  as 
to  regulate  the  festivals  and  the  religious  ceremonial 
"in  Israel's  semi-independent  state.  So  the  Sanhedrin 


(a  Greek  word),  a  body  of  seventy  members,  was 
a  House  of  Legislature  and  an 


s  aj     . 
ou^-  < 


The  precedent  for  the  number  70  was  fcjand  in 
the"  Council  of  Elders  appointed  by  Moses  ( Exodus 
xxivjf  jWhen  all  political  power  was  taken  from  the 
Jews,  the  presentation  of  religion  through  the  forms 
of  law  very  naturally  survived. 

There  is  yet  another  reason  for  Religion  being  in- 
terpreted as  Law,  which  touches  the  genius  of  Judaism. 
„,  It  has  always  been  less  a  Faith  to  be  confessed  than  a 
Life  to  be  lived.     The  emphasis  was  laid  on  .deed 
^"rather  than  on  dogma.     So  while  the  realm  of 
\$\P  was  very  str*ctty  circumscribed,  the  realm  of  thought 
was  remarkably  free.     We  shall  later  see  that  it  was 
on  this  -very  distinction  that  Christianity  broke  away 
..from  the  parent  religion  to  become  a  separate  Faith. 
'For  Paul,  its  chief  apostle  and  virtual  founder  was 
antinomistjc,.  which  means  opposed  to  the  obligations 
of  Law,  while  he  placed  new  emphasis  on  faith. 

Of  course,  the  reduction  of  Religion  to  Law  had  its 
abuses  as  well  as  its  excellences.  It  led  to  the  multi- 
plication of  ceremonial.  (The  law|.of  ritual  cleanliness 
and  of  Sabbath  restriction  are  ver*y  voluminous  and 
very  minute).  This  left  less  room  for  spontaneity  of 


CLOSE    OF    THE    PERSIAN    RULE. 


action.  Israel's  detractors  say  it  blurred  the  moral  dis- 
tinctions. This  is  a  superficial  and  erroneous  inference, 
for  it  quite  as  often  reinforced  them,  preventing  any 
temporizing  with  duty.  At  its  best  it  tended  to  sanctify 
every  act  of  life  and  to  bring  the  humblest  obligation 
into  relationship  with  God.  But  whenever  a  religion 
crystallizes  into  an  institution,  as  it  inevitably  must,  the 
spirit  occasionally  gets  lost  in  the  form.  Then  it  be- 
comes the  function  of  the  prophet  to  bring  back  the 
emphasis  to  religion's  vital  issues. 

A  further  word  on  the  religious  life  of  pos^fiadlic 
Israel.  We  must  remember  at  the  start  that  it  was  a 
colony  subject  to  Persia,  but  granted  complete  autcm- 
ojrny  in  the  management  of  its  internal  affairs.  The 
head  of  the  community  was  the  High  Priest.  He  not 
only  regulated  all  functions  in  the  Temple  ( the  religious 
centre),  but  exercised  secular  power  as  a  temporal 
pnnce.  That  temporal  power  vested  in  the  High 
Priest's  hands  was  to  cause  Judah  much  woe  later  and 
became  one  of  the  causes  of  its  downfall. 

Distinct  from  the  Temple,  Houses  of  Praye/  wer 
springing  up,  called ,  SYNAGOGUES.     The  Synagogue 

^^^••MMMMMriMMMfr 

gradually  developed  a  distinct  ritual  and  Sabbath  read- 


ings from  the  Pentateuch  aria  the  Prophets  became  a 
permanent  institution. 

The  religious  activities  and  conditions  here  described 
were  not  limited  to  the  Persian  era,  but  continued  to 
the  Greek  period  that  immediately  followed. 

* 
A  word  about  the  literature  of  this  post-exilic  epoch. 

The  most  important  of  the  later  Biblical  books  are 
ascribed  to  it,  notably :     Chronicles,  the  Five  Scrolls; 


14  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

some  Psalms,  and  even  Job.  It  was  further  the  time 
of  literary  activity  in  editing  Bible  books  already  writ- 
ten and  deducing  new  law  from  Scripture.  But  noth- 
ing appears  now  of  the  prophetic  style  of  writing. 
Haggai,  Zachariah  and  Malachi  were  the  last,  and 
already  we  miss  the  prophetic  grandeur.  The  days  of 
prophecy  were  over.  There  are  no  great  names.  Yet, 
under  the  title  of  "Men  of  the  Great  Synagogue,"  some 
noble  masters  of  the  Law  contributed  splendid  service 
while  renouncing  all  personal  recognition. 

A  sacred  collection  accepted  as  books  of  authority 
on  religious  life  is  callect  tne  CANON,  a  Greek  word 
llWSUlliig  rule,  it  was  a  work  of  great  responsibility. 
Nor  was  it  completed  at  one  time.  Begun  by  the  men 
of  the  Great  Synagogue,  its  final  completion  was  post- 

ned  until  nearly  a  century  after  the  Christian  era. 

The  Bible  books  were  placed  in  three  groups — L,A\ 
PRO>HWTS,  WRITING^  This  sequence  marked  both  the 
order  of  their  production  and  the  order  of  their  import- 
ance. 

The  Law  included  the  five  books  of  the  Pentateuch. 
The  Prophets  fell  into  two  groups :  The  Former 
Prophets  comprising  the  historic  books  from  Joshua  to 
Kings,  illustrative  of  the  divine  guidance  of  Israel.  The 
Later  Prophets  were  the  prophetic  books  proper — first, 
the  three  largest — Isaiah,  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel;  then 
the  twelve  smaller  prophetic  books  from  Hosea  to 
Malachi. 

The  third  division,  Writings,  was  a  miscellaneous 
collection  of  scripture,  some  written  very  late  indeed. 
They  included  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  the  Five  Scrolls 
(Megilloth),  Daniel,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  and  Chron- 


CLOSE    OF    THE    PERSIAN    RULE.  15 

icles.  Some  books  were  well  weighed  before  being 
admitted  into  this  sacred  library.  Some  of  those  not 
chosen  are  doubtless  lost.  Some  found  their  way  into 
another  collection  known  as  the  Apocrypha. 

No,  the  post-exilic  epoch  was  not  a  time  of  empty 
silence,  but  of  tremendous  activity.  One  of  the  most 
fruitful  periods  in  our  history. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Persian  ideas  unconsciously  exercised  their  influence. 
Conception  of  future  life  and  retribution  beyond  the 
grave  was  made  more  definite  than  in  its  earlier  Biblical 
presentation.  So  too  the  belief  in  angels  and  evil  spirits 
received  further  development.  The  Hebrew  square 
characters  now  came  to  be  used  in  place  of  the  earlier 
form. 

That  Israel  laid  stress  on  creed  is  further  proved  by 
the  late  date  of  the  formulation  of  any  Articles  of  Faith. 
Even  the  Creeds  of  Maimonides  (end  of  nth  Century) 
were  drawn  up  rather  to  differentiate  Judaism  from 
Christianity  and  Mohammedanism  than  to  explain  its 
teachings  to  its  own. 

Read  "The  Law  and  Recent  Criticism,"  in  the 
eleventh  volume  of  the  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review" 
(London,  Macmillan)  in  reply  to  a  criticism  against 
Judaism  as  Law;  Montefiore,  "Bible  for  Home  Read- 
ing," vol  ii,  pages  12-18,  on  the  Law;  Hibbert  Lectures, 
1892,  Montefiore,  parts  of  Chapters  vi  and  ix  on  the 
Scriptures.  Introduction  Literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Driver.  (Scribner.) 


A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GREEK  AND  JEW. 

The  Greeks  and  the  Jews  have  been  the  greatest  con- 
tributors toward  the  higher  civilization  of  mankind. 
Therefore  we  discern  the  hand  of  Providence  in  their 
meeting,  for  they  influenced  each  other.  The  meeting 
of  Greek  and  Jew  is  one  of  the  great  events  of  history, 
greater  than  many  of  the  battles  that  have  decided  the 
fates  of  empires.  Greece  had  already  lived  her  most 
thrilling  epoch  when  the  meeting  took  place,  but  Plato, 
disciple  of  the  moral  philosopher,  Socrates,  had  but 
recently  passed  away  (347)  and  Aristotle,  profoundest 
philosopher  of  antiquity,  still  lived. 

Macedonia  had  absorbed  the  other  Greek  principal- 
ities and  ALEXANDER,  now  sole  master,  carried  his  army 
eastward  in  the  hope  of  founding  a  universal  empire. 
Whenever  he  conquered  a  land,  he  colonized  it  with 
Greeks  and  thus  spread  Greek  civilization.  Egypt,  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  Phoenicia  and  ultimately  Ethiopia  and 
India  fell  successively  before  his  triumphant  approach. 
The  Persian  empire  of  Cyrus,  that  had  been  fast  decay- 
ing, was  included  in  the  great  array  of  conquests.  Tired 
of  the  intriguing  adventurer  placed  over  them,  the  Jews 
gladly  welcomed  the  conqueror.  Legend  weaves  a 
pretty  story  of  the  Jewish  High  Priest,  Onias  going 
forth  with  a  company  clad  in  white  to  meet  Alexander, 
and  that  in  this  picture  he  saw  the  fulfillment  of  a 
dream.  It  is  certain  that  they  hailed  this  change  of 
masters.  In  this  rise  and  fall  of  empires  a  new  group- 


GREEK  AND  JEW.  1 7 

ing  of  countries  took  place.  Judea  became  part  of 
Celo-Syria  (hollow  Syria),  a  province  whose  bounda- 
ries reached  from  Lebanon  to  Egypt.  Higher  Syria 
formed  another  province  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. Samaria,  once  the  capital  of  northern  Israel, 
was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  the  governor.  The  rebellious 
Samaritans  were  quelled,  and  Alexander  gave  the  inter- 
vening land  to  the  Judeans  to  whom  he  further  showed 
his  favor  by  freeing  them  from  taxation  during  the  Sab- 
batic year. 

This  broad  minded  conqueror  was  indeed  a  second 
Cyrus  to  the  Jews,  but  there  was  no  Isaiah  now  to  hail 
his  advent  or  to  interpret  his  triumphant  advance  in 
terms  of  divine  purpose.  A  further  reason  for  his  kind- 
ness to  the  Jews  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  some 
already  settled  in  many  places  outside  Judea,  became 
his  guides  and  interpreters  when  he  entered  the  un- 
familiar realms  of  Asia. 

All  too  soon,  in  the  midst  of  his  ambitions,  Alexander 
died  in  the  year  323.  Conflict  among  his  generals  fol- 
lowed, and  the  great  empire  was  dismembered.  After 
many  wars,  in  one  of  which  the  Jews  showed  their  re- 
ligious fidelity  in  submitting  to  slaughter  rather  than 
defend  themselves  on  the  Sabbath  day,  the  empire  was 
again  divided  into  four  kingdoms.  They  were  the  fol- 
lowing :  The  Graeco-Syrian,  the  Graeco-Egyptian,  the 
Thracian  and  the  Macedonian.  Graeco-Syria,  granted 
to  Seleucus,  included  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  with 
Persia  as  its  centre.  He  introduced  the  Selencidean 
era  named  after  him,  later  used  by  the  Jews.  This  name 
too,  came  to  be  applied  to  the  kingdom  itself.  Many 
Jews  were  invited  to  settle  in  the  new  capital — Antioch 


l8  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

on  its  Mediterranean  border.  The  next  kingdom  fell  to 
Ptolemy  Lagos  and  included  Egypt  and  the  adjoining 
lands,  one  of  which  was  Judea.  So  the  Jews  now  came 
under  the  sway  of  the  Ptolemaic  regime.  It  will  be 
well  to  keep  these  geographical  divisions  distinctly  in 
mind.  The  remaining  two  divisions  of  the  empire, 
Thrace  and  Macedonia,  hardly  enter  into  this  history. 

The  Jews  did  not  suffer  in  the  change  of  rule.  They 
were  as  free  as  before  to  live  their  own  life.  The  High 
Priest  continued  as  the  head  of  the  Jewish  community 
whose  centre  was  still  Jerusalem.  ALEXANDRIA,  a  sea- 
port named  after  the  conqueror,  was  made  the  capital 
of  Greco-Egyptian  kingdom.  Many  Jews  settled  there, 
and  it  gradually  became  the  most  important  Jewish 
community  outside  of  Judea,  both  intellectually  and  re- 
ligiously. If  there  were  Jews  in  Greek  towns,  so  also 
were  there  Greeks  in  Jewish  towns.  This  meant  a 
mingling  of  the  two  races  and  a  lessening  of  Jewish 
isolation.  Alexander  had  brought  the  Greek  tongue  to 
the  East  and  even  the  commercial  interchange  of  com- 
modities brought  necessarily  with  it  an  interchange  of 
ideas. 

The  first  man  of  achievement  to  hear  from  in  this 
epoch  was  the  High  Priest,  Simon  the  Just.  That  he 
was  called  "The  Just"  tells  much  in  a  word.  Like 
Aristides,  he  really  earned  his  title.  He  rebuilt  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  ravaged  by  war,  and  improved  the 
water  supply.  Ben  Sirach  (one  of  the  writers  of  the 
Apocrypha)  compares  him  to  the  sun  shining  on  the 
Temple  of  the  Most  High.  Here  is  one  of  his  maxims : 
"The  world  rests  on  three  pillars,  on  the  Law,  on  Wor- 
ship, and  on  Charity."  He  took  a  broad  and  moderate 


GREEK   AND  JEW.  19 

view  of  life.  When  over-zealous  souls  would  wish  to 
impose  upon  themselves  the  abnegations  of  the  Nazarite 
(See  Numbers  vi)  he  discouraged  such  extremes.  "Why 
voluntarily  renounce  gifts  that  God  in  His  love  has 
bestowed  for  our  joy?"  That  voices  the  spirit  of  Juda- 
ism. It  is  said  that  certain  wondrous  manifestations  of 
Divine  grace  ceased  with  his  death.  These  are  but 
legends,  but  they  show  how  much  he  was  revered  and 
loved. 

Joseph,  the  nephew  of  Onias,  a  man  of  resources,  was 
appointed  by  Ptolemy  Euergetes  tax-gatherer  of  the 
Palestinian  lands.  It  was  a  position  of  great  import- 
ance, and  made  him  practically  governor  (230  B.  c.  E.) 
of  all  Palestine  with  title  of  Satrap.  He  exercised  his 
power  with  severity.  Still  he  brought  wealth  and  im- 
provement to  Judea  and  awakened  in  the  Jews  a  greater 
confidence  in  themselves. 

Certainly  contact  with  the  Greeks  widened  the  hori- 
zon of  the  Jews,  furthered  their  culture,  and  gave  them 
a  taste  for  the  arts.  But  Greek  civilization  had  perils 
as  well  as  advantages — nor  was  it  transplanted  to  the 
East  in  its  noblest  form.  The  Greeks  were  fond  of 
conviviality,  so  often  the  stepping-stone  to  immorality. 
That  was  why  the  prophets,  from  Samuel  on,  so 
frowned  upon  Canaanitish  revelries.  Some  Jews 
quickly  imitated  this  pagan  frivolity  and  dissipation. 
Joseph,  the  satrap,  in  order  to  please  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pater,  the  next  Graeco-Egyptian  monarch,  introduced 
Dionysian  (Bacchanalian)  festivities  in  Jerusalem; 
these  really  meant  drunken  orgies.  Next  he  imported 
to  the  Jewish  capital  dissolute  dancing-women.  These 
associations  began  to  loosen  the  adherence  of  the  people 


2O  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

to  Judaism's  strictly  moral  code.  Epicureanism,  that 
sanction  for  indulgence,  was  beginning  to  take  its  place. 

In  the  meantime  the  greed  and  ambition  of  kings 
changed  the  map  once  more.  Antiochus  the  Great,  of 
Syria,  seized  Egypt  in  203.  This  transferred  Judea 
from  the  Egyptian  to  the  Seleucidean  rule.  Warring 
nations  had  played  battledore  and  shuttlecock  with  the 
land  of  our  ancestors  since  the  year  600.  Antiochus 
was  checked  by  the  newly  rising  power  of  Rome  from 
retaining  all  the  Graeco- Egyptian  dominions,  but  Celo- 
Syria,  including  Judea,  remained  under  his  sway.  In 
the  struggle,  some  Jews  sided  with  the  Egyptian  and 
some  with  the  Seleucidean  party.  For  Jews  were  be- 
ginning to  differentiate;  they  were  not  any  more  all 
of  one  mind  either  politically  or  religiously.  Led  by 
the  unfortunate  example  of  Joseph  and  his  successors, 
some  Jews  began  cultivating  Hellenistic  habits  to  win 
favor  with  their  Greco-Macedonian  rulers.  A  Jewish 
leader  of  the  Greek  faction  was  one  Joshua,  who  Gre- 
cianized  his  name  to  Jason.  This  worldly  man  encour- 
aged his  people  to  neglect  their  Jewish  ideals  in  favor 
of  pagan  standards  of  life.  The  safeguards  built 
around  the  Jewish  Law  by  the  teachers  of  old  were 
ruthlessly  overthrown.  But  these  traitorous  extremes 
brought  their  own  reaction.  A  pious  party  sprang  up 
to  counteract  it  and  zealously  determined  to  fulfill  the 
Jewish  Law  in  its  strictest  interpretation.  These  were 
the  Chassidim  (Greek,  Assidean),  meaning  the  pious. 

Here  then  were  two  extreme  parties  in  Israel — one, 
the  Hellenists,  whose  mania  for  everything  Greek  made 
them  almost  traitors  to  the  Jewish  cause;  and  on  the 
other  hand  the  Chassidim,  who  observed  the  law  with 


JUDEA    FIGHTS   FOR  ITS   FAITH.  21 

a  rigidity  greater  than  its  own  demands;  and  in  the 
midst  the  great  bulk  of  the  people,  who  tried  to  avoid 
the  extremes  of  both. 


CHAPTER    III. 
JUDEA  FIGHTS  FOR  ITS  FAITH. 

SYRIA  JUDEA 

B.C.E.  B.C.B. 

Antiochus  III,  the  Great..  223 

Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes.  175 

Uprising  under  Mattathias  168 

Judas  Maccabee 167 

Temple  rededicated— Ha- 
nukkah 165 

Antiochus  V,  Eupater 164 

Antiochus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  of  the  same 
name,  an  eccentric  despot  who  claimed  the  title  of  Epi- 
phanes, the  "illustrious,"  though  in  rabbinic  literature 
he  is  called  Harasha,  the  "wicked."  The  rule  of  this 
ill-balanced  tyrant  was  to  bring  woe  to  Judea,  for  which 
their  own  internal  troubles  were  in  a  measure  respon- 
sible. Indeed,  it  was  these  discords  that  drew  his  at- 
tention to  this  particular  province.  The  Hellenists,  who 
had  grown  to  quite  a  party,  sought  his  interference  in 
their  behalf.  Jason  offered  the  king  a  bribe  to  make 
him  High  Priest  and  depose  Onias,  his  own  brother. 
What  a  blasphemy  on  the  holy  office  to  fight  for  its 
material  powers !  The  system  was  wrong  as  well  as  the 
man. 

Olympic  games,  gymnasia,  were  now  introduced  into 
Judea.  These  games  were  intimately  associated  with 


A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

the  Greek  religion,  for  they  were  accompanied  by  sac- 
rifices  to  Greek  gods.  Yet  they  also  involved  immoral- 
ities, so  contradictory  were  some  ancient  conceptions  of 
religion. 

Menelaus,  another  unscrupulous  character,  offered  to 
Antiochus  a  still  higher  bribe  for  the  priesthood  and 
thus  obtained  it,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  it  had 
already  been  sold  to  Jason.  Like  master,  like  man. 

Led  from  crime  to  crime,  Menelaus  became  a  traitor 
to  his  people.  He  robbed  the  Temple  of  some  of  its 
treasures  to  pay  his  bribe  and  then  slew  the  deposed 
but  worthy  Onias  because  he  had  denounced  the  sin. 
The  outraged  people  rose  against  Menelaus,  but  an 
armed  guard  provided  by  the  king  enabled  him  to  hold 
his  office  by  force,  and  saved  him  for  the  time  being. 

At  about  this  time  (170)  Antiochus,  like  his  pre- 
decessor, attempted  to  seize  Egypt.  Some  patriotic 
Jews  in  Alexandria  showed  active  sympathy  for  the  en- 
dangered nation.  Therefore  Antiochus  on  his  return 
from  the  expedition  took  Jerusalem,  making  the  rival- 
ries of  Jason  and  Menelaus  his  excuse.  This  meant  the 
slaughter  of  many  souls  and  the  desecration  and  plun- 
der of  the  Temple.  Not  content  with  this,  Antiochus 
spread  slanders  against  Judaism  to  justify  his  excesses. 
The  rumor  went  forth,  for  example,  that  a  golden 
headed  ass  was  found  in  the  Temple. 

Next  year  his  further  attack  on  Egypt  was  checked 
by  Rome.  Again  he  vented  his  rage  on  the  Jews  and 
determined  to  exterminate  their  religion  as  the  most 
complete  means  of  erasing  their  distinct  individuality. 
Apollonios,  his  general,  attacked  Jerusalem  on  the  Sab- 
bath day,  when  he  knew  religious  scrupks  would  pre- 


JUDEA   FIGHTS   FOR  ITS  FAITH.  23 

vent  their  resistance.  Many  more  were  slain  and  the 
women  and  children  sold  in  slavery.  A  general  plunder 
followed.  The  paganizing  of  Judea  became  now  the 
determined  policy  of  this  tyrant.  Therefore  a  decree 
went  forth  forbidding  the  recognition  of  the  God  of 
Israel  and  His  Law  and  commanding  the  worship  of 
Greek  divinities — "gods  that  were  nothings,"  to  quote 
the  Psalmist.  The  Law  was  burned  and  the  statue 
of  Jupiter  set  up  in  the  Temple.  Jewish  ceremonial, 
Sabbath  festivals,  the  Abrahamic  rite,  were  replaced  by 
the  sacrifice  of  unclean  animals.  At  the  same  time  other 
methods  were  employed  completely  to  subdue  the  peo- 
ple. 

The  same  policy  was  applied  against  Jews  in  Syrian 
and  Phoenician  towns.  But  if  some  were  weak  enough 
to  surrender  their  Faith,  many  were  prepared  to  be 
staunch  to  it.  Eleazar  in  Antioch  met  a  martyr's  death. 
Hannah,  a  mother  in  Israel,  taught  her  sons  how  to 
die  for  conscience's  sake.  Martyrdom  such  as  that 
found  its  counterpart  in  many  scattered  places.  Not 
succeeding  by  threats  and  persecutions  Antiochus  re- 
sorted to  arms.  Again  followed  an  unresisted  Sabbath 
slaughter.  The  walls  of  Jeruslaem  were  leveled  and 
Zion  made  a  fortress  with  a  Syrian  garrison.  Greek 
colonists  were  transplanted  for  the  purpose  of  Helleniz- 
ing  Judea.  The  country  was  placed  under  rigid  sur- 
veillance. If  a  copy  of  the  Law  was  found  on  the 
monthly  inspection  or  an  act  of  circumcision  discovered, 
the  punishment  was  death.  Participation  in  the 
Dionysiac  festivals  was  now  a  compulsion. 

Yet  many  dared  resist.  From  the  human  point  of 
view,  opposition  seemed  madness,  but  religious  zeal 


24  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY 

counts  not  the  material  cost.  In  Modin,  a  town 
three  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  MATTATHIAS  with  his 
five  sons — John,  Simon,  Judas,  Efeazar  and  Jonathan — 
threw  down  the  gauntlet  and  began  the  attack  against 
the  enemies  of  their  Faith.  The  old  warrior  sent  this 
message  to  the  people :  "Whoever  is  zealous  for  the 
Lord  and  whosoever  wishes  to  support  the  Covenant, 
follow  me."  That  became  the  rallying  cry.  The  little 
band  deposed  the  Syrian  overseer  and  guard.  This  de- 
cisive act  was  throwing  down  the  gauntlet  to  Antiochus. 
Once  more  when  attacked  on  the  Sabbath,  the  Jews 
submitted  to  slaughter.  Then  they  came  to  the  realiza- 
tion that  self-defense  was  their  duty,  even  though  on 
that  holy  day.  Were  they  not  fighting  for  a  holy  cause? 
They  began  at  first  guerilla  warfare  on  apostates  and 
heathens.  Avoiding  regular  attacks,  they  would  swoop 
down  with  a  bold  dash  on  a  town  to  punish  and  reform. 

Next  year  (167)  Mattathias  died.  Simon  became 
the  counselor  and  JUDAS  was  chosen  commander  of  the 
trusty  band  of  revolutionists.  He  was  Israel's  greatest 
warrior  since  David.  The  title  given  him  was  trans- 
mitted to  his  party — Maccabeus,  the  Hammer.  It 
would  be  an  interesting  study  to  follow  what  the  Ham- 
mers have  achieved  in  history  from  Gideon  to  Charles 
Martel.  But  a  something  more  than  generalship  was 
to  decide  this  contest — Faith.  Judged  by  material 
standards,  it  seemed  like  a  forlorn  hope,  but  the  intrepid 
bravery  of  this  staunch  band  fighting  pro  aris  et  focis, 
"for  their  altars  and  their  hearths,"  increased  the  num- 
ber of  their  adherents  and  even  won  back  the  allegiance 
of  some  who  had  almost  drifted  from  the  fold. 

The  first  victory  over  the  Syrians  was  small,  but 


JUDEA   FIGHTS   FOR   ITS   FAITH.  2$ 

Appolonius,  the  general  who  had  been  entrusted  with 
carrying  out  the  persecuting  laws,  was  slain.  In  a 
second  engagement  they  were  attacked  at  Beth  Horon, 
north  of  Jerusalem,  and  Judas  won  here  a  still  more  de- 
cided success  over  an  army  much  larger  than  his  own. 
Antiochus  became  alarmed.  He  had  not  the  means  to 
raise  a  large  army  to  meet  this  unexpected  opposition, 
because  all  his  resources  were  taxed  to  meet  troubles  in 
other  quarters — Parthia,  Armenia,  Phoenicia. 

Angered  at  the  rebellion  of  this  petty  people,  he 
now  determined  on  their  extermination,  Hellenists  and 
all.  He  sent  Lysias  with  full  power  to  Jerusalem  to 
raze  the  city  to  the  ground.  To  the  Syrians  the  Jewish 
defeat  seemed  so  certain  that  slave-dealers  with  money 
and  chains  followed  the  army,  sure  of  a  harvest  in  their 
repulsive  trade.  A  horror  like  unto  that  of  Shushan  in 
Esther's  days  spread  over  the  doomed  city.  But  it 
raised  champions,  even  among  the  Hellenistic  Jews, 
who  were  still  attached  to  their  Faith  when  the  decisive 
test  came. 

It  was  in  the  year  166  that  Lysias  sent  an  army  of 
four  thousand  men  into  Judea  under  the  generals  Ptol- 
emy, Nicanor  and  Gorgias.  But  Judas  Maccabeus  had 
now  a  well  organized  force,  although  it  consisted  of 
but  six  thousand  men.  Before  the  struggle  began  he 
called  a  solemn  assembly  at  Mizpah,  where  Samuel  had 
gathered  Israel  nine  hunderd  years  earlier,  ordered  a 
fast,  conducted  a  service  of  prayer  and  read  the  Law. 
In  reading  the  story  of  the  Puritan  war  against  Charles 
I.  of  England  and  their  singing  hymns  before  the  battle, 
we  are  reminded  of  the  religious  earnestness  of  these 
Maccabeans.  The  usual  proclamation  that  you  will 


26  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

find  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  was  now 
read,  excusing  certain  classes  from  the  ranks,  which  re- 
duced the  army  still  more.  Then  the  struggle  once 
more  began.  By  a  clever  stratagem  Judas  Maccabeus 
met  the  Syrian  army  on  a  plain  nej|r$immaus,  not  far 
from  the  capital.  With  the  words  of  the  Law  on  his 
lips  and  with  an  encouraging  appeal  to  fight  for  the 
holy  cause,  he  gave  the  signal  to  advance.  Defeating 
the  first  contingent  of  the  enemy  before  the  main  army 
came  up,  the  next  battalion  fled  without  fighting. 

The  moral  effect  of  this  decisive  victory  was  most 
valuable,  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  booty  obtained 
supplied  arms  to  all  the  force  of  Maccabeans — the 
sinews  of  war  both  in  a  literal  and  metaphoric  sense. 
But  Lysias  dared  not  be  beaten.  He  therefore  sent  a 
big  army  against  Judas,  whose  force  had  meanwhile 
increased  to  some  ten  thousand.  The  Syrians  chose  a 
new  route  to  Beth  Horon,  but  only  to  meet  the  old  de- 
feat. This  was  the  turning  point  in  the  war.  The 
struggle  was  not  over,  but  confidence  was  restored  and 
a  respite  gained. 

Judas  Maccabeus  marched  to  the  capital  and  a  sorry 
picture  of  desolation  met  his  gaze.  His  first  work  was 
to  remove  all  signs  of  idolatry  and  desecration.  A  new 
altar  was  built,  the  Temple  was  repaired  and  dedicated, 
and  on  Kislev  25th  in  the  year  165,  it  was  recon- 
secrated. The  ceremony  recalls  Solomon's  consecra- 
tion, not  as  splendid  a  ceremonial  perhaps,  but  it  meant 
far  more.  Solomon's  Temple  had  cost  treasure,  but 
this  had  cost  blood.  It  was  more  than  a  civil  victory, 
it  was  a  triumph  of  the  divine  cause  expressed  in 
Israel's  mission.  They  fought  for  Zion  as  an  idea 


JUDEA   FIGHTS   FOR  ITS  FAITH.  2/ 

rather  than  Zion  as  a  city — the  "Zion  from  which  went 
forth  the  law."  They  proved  again  that  ideals  can  con- 
quer battalions.  This  great  lesson  is  always  brought 
home  to  us  when  we  celebrate  our  festival  of  Hanukkah 
(rededication)  instituted  by  the  Great  Council.  The 
Syrian  had  been  defeated.  He  was  the  enemy  without. 
But  a  greater  foe  had  to  be  conquered,  the  enemy  within 
— religious  indifference,  that  lurked  among  the  Hellen- 
ist worldlings  and  many  faint-hearted  souls  throughout 
the  land. 

The  legend  ran  that  when  Judas  Maccabeus  wished 
to  consecrate  the  Temple,  but  one  flask  of  pure  oil  bear- 
ing the  priestly  seal  had  been  left  after  the  enemy's 
ravage.  It  was  a  measure  that  would  last  for  a  day, 
but — marvelous  to  tell — it  served  for  eight,  by  which 
time  new  oil  was  prepared.  The  story  is  immortalized 
in  the  name  Feast  of  Lights,  and  in  its  ceremonial, 
kindling  an  additional  light  in  the  week's  festival,  from 
one  to  eight.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  ceremonial 
and  the  story?  It  is  the  Maccabean  victory  told  in 
poetry.  First,  Mattathias  stood  alone  for  Juda- 
ism's cause,  a  solitary  light.  Then  came  his  sons ;  then 
a  tiny  army  growing  instead  of  lessening  with  each  con- 
flict, from  two  thousand  to  six  thousand,  from  six  to 
ten;  and  with  the  conquest  on  the  field  rose  the  faith 
in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  The  tiny  embers  became  a 
flame,  and  the  flame  burst  into  a  conflagration.  This 
miracle  is  found  often  repeated  in  Israel's  history. 

The  Feast  of  Lights  is  called  a  Minor  Festival  in 
our  calendar,  for  reasons  accidental  rather  than  logical. 
It  is  hard  to  institute  a  new  observance  after  a  religion 
is  crystallized.  It  is  still  harder  to  give  it  the  old  sane- 


28  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

tion.  Yet  in  very  truth  Hanukkah  is  a  great  festival. 
None  question  its  authority — all  are  thrilled  by  its 
stirring  story. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Read  "Banner  of  the  Jew,"  poem  by  Emma  Lazarus, 
and  Judas  Maccabeus,  by  Longfellow.  Read  Psalms 
Ixviii,  xlii,  Ixxxvi,  Ixxxix;  and  from  liii  to  lix,  as- 
signed to  this  period. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
DANIEL  AND  THE  APOCRYPHA. 

In  seeking  to  realize  the  critical  time  of  "Storm  and 
Stress,"  we  shall  be  aided  somewhat  by  taking  a  glimpse 
at  its  literature.  For  here  we  see  pictured  the  struggles 
and  sufferings  experienced  and  the  alternate  hopes  and 
fears  that  swayed  the  heart  of  the  nation. 

We  must  mention  first  the  Book  of  DANIEL,  perhaps 
the  latest  of  the  Bible  books.  Its  complete  meaning  is 
revealed  only  when  we  learn  that  it  was  a  product  of 
these  times.  This  book  is  written  in  the  form  of  a 
revelation  of  future  events  depicted  through  dream  and 
vision  to  the  God-fearing  Daniel,  one  of  the  Babylonian 
exiles.  These  visions  cover  the  incidents  of  the  inter- 
vening period  between  the  Exile  in  the  Year  600  and 
the  Maccabean  uprising  in  175  B.  C.  E. 

The  first  picture  is  the  dream  of  King  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, which  Daniel — who  is  as  wise  as  he  is  good — is 
able  to  interpret.  The  dream  presented  an  image  with 


DANIEL  AND  THE  APOCRYPHA.  2g 

a  head  of  gold,  breast  and  arms  of  silver,  the  lower 
limbs  of  baser  metal  and  clay.  A  stone  cut  without 
hands  destroyed  the  image  and  then  grew  to  a  mountain 
that  filled  the  earth.  In  the  light  of  later  events,  it  is 
thus  translated :  The  golden  head  was  Babylon,  the 
silver  breast  and  arms  the  dual  kingdom  of  Media  and 
Persia,  the  lower  limbs  of  baser  metal  and  clay  was  the 
Greek  empire,  split  up  into  many  principalities,  com- 
pleting the  picture  down  to  the  rule  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes.  But  what  did  the  "stone"  represent?  It  ex- 
presses the  faith  of  the  writer  in  Israel's  eventual 
triumph  and  the  spread  of  Judaism  over  the  world.  But 
it  was  doubtless  written  when  the  outcome  was  still 
uncertain. 

The  same  march  of  events  is  later  repeated  in  visions 
to  Daniel  himself.  The  different  kingdoms  are  now 
depicted  in  the  figures  of  beasts  that  give  the  same  as- 
surance of  Israel's  ultimate  victory. 

In  the  third  vision  our  attention  is  focused  on  the 
events  nearer  the  Maccabean  time.  A  ram  with  two 
horns  is  the  Medo-Persian  empire.  A  he-goat  repre- 
sents Greece,  its  horn  Alexander  the  Great.  Four 
horns  that  uprose  in  its  place  are  the  four  kingdoms 
into  which  his  empire  was  split — Macedonia,  Thrace, 
Syria  and  Egypt,  while  a  little  horn  that  overthrows 
Judah's  sanctuary  is  none  other  than  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes. 

A  last  vision  drops  metaphor  and  mentions  the  king- 
doms by  actual  name.  The  persecutions  under  Antio- 
chus are  vividly  depicted : 

"They  shall  profane  the  Sanctuary,  even  the 
fortress,  and  shall  take  away  the  continual  burnt 


3O  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

offering;  and  they  shall  set  up  the  abomination 
that  maketh  desolate.  And  such  as  do  wickedly 
against  the  covenant  shall  be  pervert  by  flattery; 
but  the  people  that  know  their  God  shall  be  strom> 
and  do  exploits.  They  that  be  wise  among  the 
people  shall  instruct  many.  Yet  they  shall  fall  by 
the  sword  and  by  flame,  by  captivity  and  by  spoil 
many  days.  Now  when  they  shall  fall  they  shall  be 
helped  with  a  little  help  (the  Maccabees).  And 
some  shall  fall,  to  try  them  and  to  purge  and  to 
make  them  white."  (The  last  reference  indicates 
the  ennobling  influence  of  martyrdom  touchingly 
depicted  also  in  the  fifty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah). 

The  death  of  these  noble  souls  deepened  the  be- 
lief of  this  writer  in  the  future  life  as  demanded  by 
divine  justice: 

"Many  of  them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the 
earth  shall  awake,  some  to  everlasting  life,  and 
some  to  shame  and  everlasting  contempt.  They 
that  be  wise  shall  shine  as  the  brightness  of  the 
firmament  and  they  that  turn  many  to  righteous- 
ness, as  the  stars  for  ever  and  ever." 

The  book  was  certainly  written  by  the  pious  author 
to  inspire  his  brethren  during  that  dark  struggle,  to 
urge  them  to  be  loyal  to  God  and  His  Law  with  the 
staunch  conviction  that  all  would  come  right  in  the 
end.  Daniel  himself,  who  is  further  presented  as  dar- 
ing a  fiery  furnace  and  a  lion's  den,  unswerving  in  his 
righteous  determination  to  be  true  to  the  God  of  his 
fathers  and  saved  from  both — stands  forth  as  a  thrilling 
and  inspiring  example. 

Who  can  say  how  many  may  have  been  nerved  to 
be  loyal  and  to  "wait  for  God  salvation"  by  these  im- 
passioned pictures  ?  So.  next  to  Judas  Maccabeus,  the 


DANIEL   AND  THE   APOCRYPHA.  3! 

hero  of  the  Hanukkah  story,  let  us  enshrine  in  our 
hearts  and  memories  the  unknown  author  of  the  Book 
of  Daniel  who  fed  the  faith  and  the  courage  of  Israel  in 
their  days  of  sorrow  and  darkness. 

Next  we  will  turn  to  that  collection  of  writings  pre- 
viously mentioned,,  called  the  APOCRYPHA,  a  Greek 
word  meaning  hidden  or  obscure.  This  title  as  applied 
to  their  use  was  to  indicate  that  the  books  were  used 
for  private  circulation,  rather  than  for  reading  at  pub- 
lic worship.  The  term  as  applied  to  their  origin  was 
to  indicate  that  their  authority  as  sacred  scripture  was 
not  as  decided  as  that  of  the  Bible  books.  This  last 
application  has  given  a  rather  sinister  meaning  to  the 
word  apocryphal.  But  the  collection  is  full  of  lofty  re- 
ligious sentiment  well  worthy  to  be  included  in  our  most 
sacred  treasures. 

Like  the  Bible,  this  collection  was  not  written  all  at 
one  time,  nor  in  one  land.  It  spreads  over  the  period 
between  200  B.  C.  E.  and  150  A.  C.  E.,  written  there- 
fore under  Persian,  Greek  and  Roman  rule;  some  in 
Judea,  others  in  the  lands  of  the  Diaspera.  While  the 
term  covers  some  writings  of  non-Jewish  scribes,  the 
Apocrypha  proper  includes  the  Jewish  writings  only, 
and  only  such  will  be  considered  here. 

These  consist  of  fourteen  books  that  occur  in  the 
following  order :  i  and  2,  T  and  II  Esdras;  3,  Tobit ;  4, 
Judith;  5,  Additions  to  the  Book  of  Esther  To,  Wis- 
dom of  Solomon ;  7,  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach, 
or  Ecclesiasticns ;  8.  Baruch  (with  epistle  to  Jeremiah)  ; 
9,  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children;  10.  History  of 
Susanna;  n,  History  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon;  12, 


32  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Prayer  of  Masses,  King  of  Judah;  13  and  14,  I  and  II 
Maccabees. 

Some  are  narrative,  some  prophetic  or  rather  apo- 
calyptic, and  some  didactic.  While  the  narratives  arc 
not  all  histories,  they  are  invaluable  as  depicting  the 
inner  life  of  the  people,  their  brave  struggles,  their  deep 
convictions,  and  their  yearnings  for  better  things.  One 
idea  seems  common  to  all.  Each  story  is  presented  as 
an  illustration  of  the  temporal  trials  of  good  men  and 
women,  like  Tobit  and  Susanna,  and  the  ultimate  re- 
ward of  their  fidelity ;  the  edifying  purpose  throughout 
tending  to  foster  the  faith  and  courage  of  the  people 
in  time  of  tribulation.  In  this  respect  the  apocryphal 
books  resemble  Daniel. 

While  these  books  as  a  whole  lack  the  freshness  and 
originality  and  the  exquisite  simplicity  of  the  best  Bible 
books,  they  show  none  the  less  an  advance  in  thought 
and  survey.  There  is  more  mysticism  in  the  apocry- 
phal writings.  Wisdom  is  personified,  almost  merging 
into  a  being.  Angels  and  spirits  play  a  larger  part. 
Immortality  is  brought  to  the  fore,  and  Asmodeus,  a 
sort  of  devil,  appears  upon  the  scene.  Some  of  these 
ideas,  such  as  the  personification  of  wisdom  and  the 
existence  of  a  devil,  were  further  fostered  in  Christian- 
ity and  developed  into  distinct  doctrines,  while  the  in- 
herent rationalism  of  Judaism  gradually  threw  them 
off. 

Let  us  consider  the  BOOKS  OF  THE  MACCABEES,  for 
these  are  the  classic  authority  on  the  Maccabean  up- 
rising. The  first  Book  gives  a  graphic  picture  of  the 
struggle  and  the  events  that  led  up  to  it.  It  is  also  our 
source  for  the  subseqttent  events  which  will  be  related 


DANIEL   AND  THE   APOCRYPHA.  33 

in  due  course,  carrying1  the  narrative  down  to  135  B.  C. 
It  is  written  from  the  strict  standpoint  of  the  Chassidim. 
These,  it  will  be  remembered,  were  the  extremely  pious 
party.  It  is  couched  in  sober  historic  style.  Its  value 
as  authentic  Jewish  history  cannot  be  over-estimated. 
Written  originally  in  Hebrew  (or  Aramaic),  it  un- 
fortunately has  come  down  to  us  only  in  a  Greek  trans- 
lation. 

The  second  Book  of  Maccabees  was  written  in  Greek 
and  is  a  condensation  of  a  larger  work.  It  confines  it- 
self to  the  series  of  events  between  175  and  160. 
Though  written  in  more  ornate  style,  it  is  less  reliable; 
but  it  contains  some  interesting  stories,  such  as  the 
martyrdom  of  Eleazar,  Hannah  and  her  seven  sons. 
Like  Daniel,  it  is  written  to  edify  and  inspire. 

We  have  space  here  only  for  a  detailed  notice  of  Ben 
Sirach  and  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  as  indications  of  the 
influence  of  Greek  thought  at  its  best  on  Jewish  think- 
ers. Together  with  the  Bible  books  of  Proverbs,'  Job 
and  Ecclesiastes,  they  form  a  group  called  "Wisdom 
Literature."  A  large  part  of  both  books  is  devoted  to 
the  value  of  wisdom,  but  it  is  that  wisdom  the  begin- 
ning of  which  is  the  fear  of  the  Lord. 

The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  (Greek  for  Joshua),  Ben  Si- 
rach or  ECCLESIASTICUS  is  a  commentary  on  the  times. 
It  was  written  about  180,  in  Judea,  before  the  persecu- 
tion began  under  Antiochus,  the  Syrian,  who  was  so 
little  Greek  and  so  largely  pagan.  It  urges  obedience 
to  the  Lew  arid  Commandments  and  gives  copious  rules 
of  conduct  in  every  relation  of  life. 


34  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Ben  Sirach  was  a  Jewish  scribe.  Some  of  his  say- 
ings are  edited  and  some  are  original.  Here  are  a  few 
quotations : 

Woe  to  the  sinner  that  goeth  two  ways. 

Wine  and  music  rejoice  the  heart,  and  the  love 
of  wisdom  is  above  both. 

The  knowledge  of  wickedness  is  not  wisdom 
and  the  prudence  of  sinners  is  not  counsel. 

They  (the  laboring  class)  maintain  the  fabric 
of  the  world;  and  in  the  handiwork  of  their  craft 
is  their  prayer. 

He  that  sacrificeth  of  a  thing  wrongfully  got- 
ten, his  offering  is  made  a  mockery. 

As  one  that  slayeth  his  neighbor  is  he  that  tak- 
eth  away  his  living. 

As  God's  mercy  is  great,  so  is  His  correction 
also. 

Before  man  is  life  and  death,  and  whatsoever 
he  liketh  shall  be  given  to  him. 

There  is  a  shame  that  bringeth  sin,  and  there  is 
a  shame  that  is  glory  and  grace. 

A  slip  on  the  pavement  is  better  than  a  slip  with 
the  tongue. 

Depart  from  wrong  and  it  shall  turn  aside  from 
thee. 

The  influence  of  Greek  ideas  on  Ben  Sirach  is  slight, 
on  WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON  it  is  pronounced.  Indeed, 
this  latter  book  was  written  in  Greek,  in  Alexandria, 
the  centre  of  Hellenist  government.  Its  date  is  about 
100  B.  C.  Like  most  of  the  books  of  this  collection, 
it  is  ascribed  to  one  of  the  great  men  of  the  Bible.  Here 
King  Solomon  exhorts  the  rulers  of  the  earth  to  seek 
wisdom  and  to  shun  idolatry.  He  expatiates  on  the 
influence  of  divine  wisdom  on  life  as  exemplified  in  the 


DANIEL   AND   THE   APOCRYPHA.  35 

noble  souls  of  Israel's  great  past.    Here  are  some  ex- 
tracts : 

Beware  of  murmuring  which  is  unprofitable: 
and  refrain  your  tongue  from  back-biting:  for 
there  is  no  word  so  secret  that  shall  go  for  nought. 

Honorable  age  is  not  that  which  standeth  in 
length  of  time,  nor  that  is  measured  by  number 
of  years. 

If  riches  be  a  possession  to  be  desired  in  this 
life,  what  is  richer  than  wisdom  that  worketh  all 
things? 

Fear  is  nothing  else  but  a  betraying  of  the  suc- 
cours which  reason  offereth. 

For  these  men  [idolaters]  there  is  but  small 
blame,  if  they  perad venture  do  but  go  astray  while 
they  are  seeking  God  and  desiring  to  find  Him. 

Even  if  we  sin,  we  are  Thine.  But  we  shall  not 
sin,  knowing  that  we  have  been  accounted  Thine: 
for  to  be  acquainted  with  Thee  is  perfect  righteous- 
ness. 

Court  not  death  in  the  error  of  thy  life.  God 
made  not  death,  nor  delighteth  He  when  the  liv- 
ing perish,  for  He  created  all  things  that  they 
might  have  being. 

Wisdom  is  the  effulgence  from  everlasting  light, 
and  the  unspotted  mirror  of  the  working  of  God, 
and  the  image  of  His  goodness. 

NOTES   AND   REFERENCES. 

The  discovery  of  fragments  of  the  original  Hebrew 
text  of  Ecclesiasticus  was  made  by  Prof.  Solomon 
Shechter.  See  a  number  of  articles  in  Vols.  X.  and 
XII.  of  the  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review."  (Macmillan, 
London.) 

Compare  the  treatment  of  wisdom  in  Proverbs  ( viii.) 
and  in  Ecclesiasticus. 

In  addition  to  the  quotation  from  Daniel  on  immor- 


36  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

tality  quoted  in  this  chapter,  we  append  here  further 
Biblical  quotations  that  express  this  belief:  Ezekiel, 
xxxvii ;  Hosea,  vi-2;  Isaiah,  xxvi-ig;  Ecclesiastes,  xii- 
7;  Psalms,  xvi,  9-11 ;  xvii-15;  Proverbs,  xii-28. 

Montefiore,  "Bible  for  Home  Reading"  Vol.  II,  Sec- 
tion I,  Chapters  II  to  V ;  Section  V,  Chapter  II. 

Driver — "Daniel,"  Cambridge  Bible.  (Cambridge 
University  Press.) 


CHAPTER    V. 
JUDEA  FIGHTS  FOR  ITS  INDEPENDENCE. 

SYRIA  JUOEA 

Demetrius  I,  Soter 162 

Judas  Maccabee  died  ....     160 
Jonathan,  High  Priest  and 
Tributary  Prince 152 

Alexander  Balas 150 

Demetrius  II,  Nicator 145 

Simon  —  Judea   independ- 
ent   142-13* 

Antiochus  VII,  Sidetes  ...  138 

Demetrius  II    again;  . . .       128 

Antiochus  VIII  125-96 

This  Temple  consecration  was  the  climax  of  the 
Maccabean  story,  but  it  was  by  no  means  its  close.  The 
worship  had  been  restored,  but  the  struggle  to  assure 
its  perpetuity  was  not  yet  over.  Independence  was  yet 
to  be  won,  nor  were  animosities  at  home  quite  forgot- 
ten. It  was  an  armed  peace  at  best.  Judas  Maccabeus 
must  now  build  new  fortifications  against  possible  in- 
vasion. The  petty  nations  around  all  looked  on  with 
ill-concealed  hatred.  Those  who  in  many  instances  had 
become  Syrian  allies  had  now  to  be  met  on  the  field. 


JUDEA    FIGHTS    FOR    ITS    INDEPENDENCE.  37 

The  alert  and  energetic  Judas  marched  out  once  more 
and  subdued  the  Idumeans  and  Ammonites  and  won 
peace  and  security  for  his  people  dwelling  on  their 
borders.  Appeals  from  brethren  whose  possessions  had 
been  despoiled  and  their  families  slain  reached  him 
from  many  sides.  With  the  aid  of  his  brother  Simon, 
whom  he  despatched  to  Galilee  while  he  marched  to 
Gilead,  these  heathen  raids  were  suppressed.  Jewish 
refugees  were  brought  to  Judea.  So  there  were  new 
rejoicings  at  these  victories  on  his  return  next  year 
(164).  The  fight  for  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish 
faith  was  now  over,  but  the  fight  for  the  restoration 
of  the  Jewish  nation  had  only  just  begun. 

Not  for  very  long  was  Judas  allowed  to  rest.  It  is 
far  easier  to  take  up  the  sword  than  to  lay  it  down. 
The  never-sleeping  Syrians  were  again  in  the  field,  de- 
feating two  of  his  generals.  But  once  more  victory 
crowned  his  arms.  In  the  same  year  Antiochus,  hu- 
miliated with  defeats  in  Parthia  and  Persia  as  well  as 
in  Judea,  came  to  a  sad  end.  His  death  left  two  rival 
governors  for  the  regency  of  the  Syrian  kingdom. 

The  obstinate  Hellenist  party  within  Israel,  who  had 
not  yet  learned  their  lesson,  appealed  to  the  new  mon- 
arch, Antiochus  Eupator,  to  take  up  their  cause.  So 
war  broke  out  again  in  163.  It  was  the  Sabbatic  year, 
when  nothing  is  sown  and  when  the  land  is  allowed  to 
lie  at  rest.  (See  Leviticus  xxv.)  So  these  circum- 
stances added  further  embarrassment  to  the  normal 
evils  of  war.  It  meant  scarcity  of  provisions  and  the 
terror  of  long  siege.  Siege  was  a  usual  phase  of  an- 
cient warfare.  A  brave  fight  in  the  open  field  against 
large  odds  brought  reverse  to  the  Maccabeans.  One  of 


38  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

the  brothers,  John,  died  on  the  field,  a  martyr  to  his 
bravery.  He  stabbed  an  elephant  supposed  to  bear  the 
king,  though  like  Samson,  he  must  fall  in  the  overthrow 
he  designed.  The  army  retreated  before  the  second 
siege  was  begun.  Meanwhile  Philip,  the  rival  regent 
of  Syria,  raising  an  army  against  Lysias,  compelled 
his  withdrawal  from  Jerusalem.  So  Lysias  concluded 
an  honorable  peace  with  the  Judeans,  allowing  them 
the  religious  liberty  for  which  they  had  at  first  taken 
up  arms. 

The  blessings  of  peace  were  now  theirs  for  a  space. 
Judas  Maccabeus  was  made  High  Priest.  He  was  not 
of  the  priestly  line,  but  the  office  involved  the  wielding 
of  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  authority.  For  the 
former,  none  more  fitted  than  he.  Yet  the  strict  party 
were  not  satisfied  that  it  should  pass  from  the  tradi- 
tional priestly  family.  The  Hellenist  menace  had  not 
yet  disappeared,  though  Jason  and  Menelaus,  its 
fathers,  were  now  both  dead.  This  party  now  sup- 
ported a  new  Syrian  claimant  against  the  one  endorsed 
by  the  Maccabeans — Demetrius  (162),  whose  agent, 
Bacchides,  appointed  one  of  these  very  Hellenists,  Al- 
cimus,  as  High  Priest.  Thus  discord  was  sowed  anew 
in  Israel. 

The  Syrians  with  large  armies  twice  repulsed  the 
small  army  of  Judas,  but  Nicanor,  the  cruel  general  of 
Demetrius,  was  slain.  This  brought  such  relief  to  the 
Jews  that  "Nicanor  Day"  was  celebrated  in  Judea  for 
some  years  as  a  day  of  rejoicing.  Judas  was  certainly 
at  the  head  of  the  commonwealth  now,  even  though  he 
did  not  exercise  its  priestly  functions.  Hearing  of 
Rome's  great  power  and  recognizing  that  it  exercised  a 


JUDEA    FIGHTS    FOR    ITS    INDEPENDENCE.  39 

kind  of  sovereignty  over  Syria,  Judas  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  it,  but  too  late  for  its  interference  to  be 
of  aid.    For  he  had  now  to  meet  a  larger  avenging  army 
under  Bacchides  with  a  meagre  force,  discouraged  by 
persistent  war  and  overwhelming  odds.     With  but  a 
few  hundred  men,  he  went  forth  to  meet  the  picked 
thousands  of  his  foes,  as  brave  and  as  determined  as 
the  Greeks  at  Thermopylae.     When  defeat  was  certain 
he  yet  stood  fighting  and  undaunted  till  wounded  unto 
death.     So  died  a  great  man  who  had  wrought  salva- 
tion for  Israel.     He  had  made  Judah  a  nation  of  war 
rior  heroes  exalted  by  religious  zeal.     His  name,  his 
spirit,  continued  to  inspire  them  to  determined  resist- 
ance against  foes  without  and  within.     Their  religious 
liberty  gained  at  such  fearful  cost,  even  Demetrius, 
though  now  holding  Judea  in  subjection,  no  longer 
dared  defy. 

With  Judas  the  Great  and  his  brother  John  both 
dead,  with  Alcimus.  the  Hellenist,  as  High  Priest,  and 
with  a  Syrian  garrison  in  the  capital  and  all  the  sur- 
rounding places,  there  was  more  or  less  conflict  and 
demoralization.    The  outlook  was  not  promising.    But 
JONATHAN,  another  of  Mattathias'  five  sons,  a  worthy 
brother  of  Judas,  kept  the  Hasmonean  party  together. 
So,  although  from  the  death  of  Alcimus,  there  was  no 
High  Priest  or  political  head  for  seven  years,  still  the 
confidence  of  the  Jews  in  Jonathan  quietly  grew;  and 
be  enabled  them  to  hold  their  own  in  a  new  uprising. 
Indeed,  he  made  them  strong  enough  for  Bacchides 
lo  enter  into  terms  of  peace.    At  this  juncture  Jonathan 
was  recognized  as  their  official  head.     The  Hellenist 


4O  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

party  quietly  died  out ;  they  never  had  the  people  behind 
them. 

When  the  Syrian  throne  was  seized  by  an  adventurer, 
Alexander  Balas,  he  realized  sufficiently  the  impor- 
tance of  Jonathan  to  appoint  him  High  Priest  and 
Tributary  Prince  in  1 52 ;  though  the  deposed  Demetrius 
now  sought  Jonathan's  aid  too.  The  tables  were  turned 
and  Jonathan  held  something  like  a  balance  of  power, 
for  Demetrius  still  maintained  a  partial  sway.  Jona- 
than showed  his  foresight  in  remaining  loyal  to  Alex- 
ander Balas,  also  to  his  son  who  became  Antiochus  VI. 

Loaded  with  honors,  Jonathan  was  now  given  the 
golden  clasp  of  independence,  and  his  brother  Simon 
made  a  Syrian  commander.  Loyalty  to  the  Syrians 
meant  hard  fighting  now  for  the  Jews,  but  the  oppor- 
tunity was  given  now  to  strengthen  the  defences  of 
Jerusalem  and  to  enable  the  city  and  the  people  to  re- 
cover from  the  ravages  consequent  on  a  long  series  of 
wars.  Judea  had  now  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men. 
They  stood  by  Alexander  Balas  when  all  deserted  him. 
Even  then  concessions  were  obtained  from  the  new 
king,  Demetrius  II.,  showing  that  the  Syrian  power 
was  broken. 

The  treachery  of  Tryphon,  a  general  of  the  new  king, 
led  to  Jonathan's  death  and  the  massacre  of  a  thousand 
of  his  men.  It  is  hard  to  say  to  whom  Israel  owed  the 
greater  debt,  Judas  or  Jonathan.  Judas  saved  the  na- 
tion at  a  perilous  hour;  Jonathan  reorganized  it  and 
gave  it  an  abiding  strength. 

SIMON,  the  last  brother,  now  placed  himself  at  the 
head  to  rally  and  save  Judea.  This  resolution,  where 
only  the  non-resistance  of  despair  was  looked  for,  com- 


JUDEA    FIGHTS    FOR    ITS    INDEPENDENCE.  4! 

pletely  upset  Tryphon's  scheme  and  saved  Judea  from 
disaster.  Like  Jonathan,  he  became  at  once  by  popular 
choice  the  religious  and  civil  head  of  his  people  with 
the  title,  High  Priest,  included.  He  felt  the  time  had 
come  to  throw  off  the  weak  rule  of  the  unreliable,  vacil- 
lating Syrian  power,  though  this  was  far  beyond  the 
original  expectation  when  the  revolt  began  and  far  be- 
yond its  aims.  Yet  the  march  of  events  made  it  a  logi- 
cal sequence.  He  decided  to  recognize  Demetrius  II. 
against  Tryphon  on  condition  that  Jewish  independ- 
ence be  recognized  in  turn.  The  terms  were  accepted 
— "We  release  you  from  the  crown  which  you  owe  us 
and  we  remit  the  taxes  that  we  laid  on  Jerusalem." 
Verily,  the  yoke  of  the  Gentiles  was  taken  away  from 
Israel. 

The  Seleucidean  Era  was  now  renounced  together 
with  the  Seleucidean  sway,  and  the  reckoning  of  years 
began  anew  from  142  with  the  accession  of  Simon  as 
High  Priest,  Commander  of  the  Army  and  Prince  of 
the  Nation.  This  marked  again  the  independence  of 
Judah  that  had  been  lost  since  the  year  600  B.  C,  when 
Nebuchadnezzar  overthrew  Jerusalem  and  its  Temple 
and  took  the  Jews  into  Babylonian  exile. 

NOTE. 

Jewish  shekel  and  half-shekel  coins  of  Simon's  time 
are  still  in  existence.  (See  Anglo-Jewish  Historical 
Exhibition  Volume.) 


42  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER    VI. 

IN   THE  DIASPORA. 

Having  brought  our  story  to  the  close  of  an  epoch, 
we  will  pause  and  glance  at  the  status  of  the  Jew  in 
other  lands.  The  dispersion  in  a  voluntary  way  had 
already  begun,  though  Judea  was  still  the  centre  of 
gravity.  The  sway  of  the  High  Priest  reached  not 
only  to  the  Palestinian  provinces — Phrenicia,  Samaria, 
Galilee,  Gilead,  Edom  and  Philistia — but  extended 
through  parts  of  Asia  Minor  and  lands  on  both  banks 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  These  lands  of  settlement 
in  the  First  and  Second  Centuries  before  the  Christian 
Era  outside  of  Palestine  are  called  the  Diaspora.  The 
land  that  next  to  Judea  contained  the  largest  number 
of  Jews  was  Egypt.  Our  narrative  has  been  moving  to 
and  fro  between  these  two  lands.  In  no  country  out- 
side of  Greece  itself  was  the  Greek  spirit  so  completely 
diffused  as  in  Egypt.  Alexandria,  its  new  capital,  dis- 
placing it  as  the  intellectual  centre  of  the  world,  was 
quite  a  colonial  Athens,  and  while  the  Greek  civiliza- 
tion at  its  worst  was  tinctured  with  an  enervated  orien- 
talism and  had  much  in  it  debasing,  yet  the  Greek  spirit 
at  its  best  also  found  its  way  to  Alexandria,  and  its  in- 
fluence was  intellectually  broadening  and  elevating  on 
the  Jews  resident  there.  It  has  already  been  pointed 
out  that  the  meeting  of  Greek  and  Jew  was  to  be  of 
lasting  consequence  to  the  world  at  large. 

Under  this  Greek  regime  the  Jews  were  given  equal- 
ity in  Egypt,  and  also  in  Cyrene  (on  the  coast  of  the 
adjoining  country,  Lybia),  at  least  officially.  The 


IN  THE  DIASPORA.  43 

Greek- Egyptian  royal  house  was  called  the  Ptolmaic, 
from  Ptolemy,  the  family  name  of  its  kings.  Ptolemy 
Philometer  was  a  contemporary  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes,  and  many  Jews  fled  from  Palestine  to  take 
refuge  under  his  benevolent  sway. 

The  Jews  have  always  concentrated  in  large  cities 
when  settling  in  other  lands  where  they  would  find 
themselves  a  small  minority.  This  has  been  a  source 
both  of  strength  and  weakness  to  them.  Can  you  see 
why?  The  Delta,  an  Alexandrian  district  on  the  sea- 
coast,  was  wholly  a  Jewish  colony.  The  Jews  partici- 
pated in  both  the  commercial  and  intellectual  activities 
of  this  famous  capital  of  antiquity.  They  exported 
grain,  formed  artisan  guilds,  and  established  schools 
which  were  also  their  synagogues.  Onias,  son  of  the 
Jewish  High  Priest  of  the  same  name,  was  the  most  re- 
nowned of  the  Judean  settlers.  He  was  entrusted  with 
an  army  in  one  of  Philometer's  campaigns.  He  was 
likewise  chosen  by  the  Judeans  of  Egypt  as  their 
Ethnarch  (governor),  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  Jew- 
ish community.  Around  him  the  people  coalesced  into 
a  strong  body. 

He  conceived  the  idea  of  building  a  Temple  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Alexandrian  Jews  whom  distance  prac- 
tically debarred  from  the  benefits  of  the  Temple  in 
Jerusalem.  If  right  at  all,  the  right  to  establish  it  was 
most  naturally  his  as  heir  of  the  High  Priest  at  Jeru- 
salem. Yet  it  was  a  bold  step,  a  daring  precedent, 
since  only  one  sanctuary,  that  at  Jerusalem,  had  been 
recognized  since  the  days  of  Josiah.  Such  was  the  law. 
(See  Deut.  xii,  especially  verse  13.)  It  was,  not  un- 
naturally, condemned  by  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem.  We 


44  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

would  say,  if  it  was  a  daring  innovation,  it  was  abun- 
dantly justified  under  the  changed  conditions.  The 
Deuteronomy  law  was  of  great  value  at  the  time  in 
preventing  the  spread  of  idolatrous  notions  through  the 
ministrations  of  ignorant  village  priests;  but  "New 
occasions  bring  new  duties."  Again,  the  two-and-a- 
half  Tribes  in  the  days  of  Joshua  (see  chapter  xxii) 
offered  a  precedent  when  they  built  a  second  altar  on 
their  own  side  of  the  Jordan.  Lastly,  it  was  almost  a 
realization  of  the  exquisite  Messianic  picture  in  Isaiah 
xix,  19-25,  where  an  altar  would  be  built  in  Egypt, 
and  Israel,  Assyria  and  Egypt  would  be  united  under 
God's  blessing. 

However,  built  it  was,  at  Leontopolis,  in  old  Goshen, 
land  of  early  Israel's  sojourn,  and  near  the  famous 
Memphis.  It  received  royal  sanction  and  aid. 

Philometer's  confidence  was  further  shown  in  ap- 
pointing Onias  Arab-arch,  i.  e.,  commander  of  the 
Arabian  province  Heliopolis,  and  also  custodian  of  the 
Nile  ports.  But  his  interest  in  Israel  was  further  mani- 
fested in  his  hearty  endorsement  of  the  translation  of 
the  Jewish  Scriptures.  This  translation  was  made  in- 
cidentally for  the  Greeks,  but  really  for  the  Jews.  He- 
brew was  growing  more  and  more  of  a  strange  tongue 
to  the  new  generation  in  Alexandria  and  its  surround- 
ings. Even  in  Palestine  proper  they  no  longer  spoke 
Hebrew,  but  Aramaic,  a  sister  tongue.  A  translation 
oi  the  Bible  had  already  been  made  in  this  language, 
called  Targum.  Indeed,  the  books  of  Daniel,  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  are  written  almost  wholly  in  this  lan- 
guage. But,  furthermore,  this  translation  gave  the  de- 
sired opportunity  to  the  Jews  to  explain  their  faith  and 


IN  THE  DIASPORA.  45 

literature  to  the  people  with  whom  they  were  now 
brought  in  friendly  contact,  and  would  silence  the 
slanders  of  ill-wishers  such  as  the  Egyptian  priest  Man- 
etho. 

At  first  only  the  Pentateuch  was  translated,  each 
Book  entrusted  to  a  different  authority.  A  pretty  story 
that  we  must  not  take  too  seriously  says  it  was  entrusted 
to  seventy-two  persons,  six  from  each  tribe.  The  tradi- 
tion survives  partly  in  its  name — SEBTUAGINT — 
(seventy),  written  Ixx.  The  anniversary  of  this  really 
great  event  was  commemorated  by  the  Jews  as  a  holi- 
day. We  may  say  that  this  translation  of  our  Scrip- 
ture into  this  widely  spoken  tongue  was  the  beginning 
of  the  mission  of  the  Jew  to  carry  God's  Law  to  tht 
Gentiles.  The  Greeks  were  among  the  great  educators 
of  the  world.  Now  the  Bible  was  revealed  in  their 
tongue,  it  became  the  property  of  the  world  and  its  les- 
sons reached  the  hearts  of  many  scattered  far  and  wide. 

NOTES   AND   REFERENCES. 

So  many  Hebrew  terms  and  constructions  were  used 
in  this  Greek  translation  that  it  became  a  modification 
of  the  language,  a  sort  of  Jewish-Greek. 

Septuagint.  Schurer,  "Jewish  Life  in  the  Times  of 
Christ,"  2d  Division  III,  S.  33  (Scribner).  This  is  a 
very  valuable  work  on  this  era,  but  should  be  accepted 
with  reservations. 

The  fairest  presentation  of  the  Judaism  of  these 
times  by  a  non-Jewish  author  is  Toy's  "Judaism  and 
Christianity." 

Read  article  Alexandria,  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  Vol. 
I 

"Are  there  traces  of  Greek  philosophy  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint?" Freudenthal.  Jewish  Quarterly  Review, 
Vol.  II. 


BOOK  II. 

JUDEA  INDEPENDENT 


PHARISEES  AND  SADDUCEES  49 

CHAPTER   VII. 

PHARISEES  AND  SADDUCEES. 
THE  HASMONEAN  DYNASTY  ROME 

B.C.E.  B.C.B. 

Simon 142      Final  subjection   of   Car- 
John  Hyrcanus  1 135          thage  and  Greece 146 

Aristobulus  I.    105      Pompey  takes    Syria  and 

Alexander  janneus 104         closes    the    Seleucidean 

Salome  Alexander  78         dynasty 65 

Aristobulus  II    69      Pompey  Takes  Jerusalem    63 

Hyrcanus    II.      (tributary  1st     triumvirate,     Caesar, 

to  Rome) 63          Pompey  and  Crassus....     60 

Antigonus 46-37      Caesar 48 

2r,  d      triumvirate,      A  n  - 
tony,  Octavius  and  Lepi- 

dus 44 

Herod   37-4      1st     Emperor,     Augustus, 

30  B.C.-14  A  C. 

The  new  kingdom  acquired  de  jure,  must  yet  be 
fought  for  to  be  maintained  de  facto.  The  citadel  of 
Jerusalem,  as  well  as  the  city  of  Gazara,  key  to  the 
mountain  passes,  had  still  to  be  mastered.  Successful 
in  both,  Judah  could  enjoy  some  years  of  long  needed 
peace.  Simon  furthered  the  religious  as  well  as  the 
political  welfare  of  his  country.  The  people  could  till 
their  ground  in  peace  at  least,  even  if  they  could  not 
all  "sit  under  their  own  vine  and  their  own  fig-tree" ; 
for  "there  was  none  to  fray  them  away".  Simon,  more- 
over, "strengthened  those  who  had  been  brought  low, 
the  Law  he  searched  out,  and  he  beautified  the  sanctu- 
ary". (I.  Maccabees.) 

The  office  of  High  Priest,  maintained  hitherto  in  a 
hereditary  priestly  family,  was  now  transferred  to  the 
Hasmonean  House,  and  hence  devolved  on  Simon. 
He  renewed  the  treaty  with  Rome,  which  had  taken 


5O  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

the  place  of  Greece  in  becoming  the  greatest  power  in 
the  world  and  the  arbiter  of  nations. 

When  Trypho  was  slain,  Antiochus  turned  against 
the  jews,  but  was  defeated  by  Simon's  sons.  Alas,  his 
fate  was  not  to  be  an  exception  from  that  of  the  rest  of 
his  warrior  brothers.  None  died  a  peaceful  death. 
Simon,  together  with  his  sons,  was  treacherously  slain 
by  his  own  son-in-law,  Ptolemy,  an  unscrupulous  man, 
cruelly  ambitious  for  the  throne. 

JOHN  HYRCANUS,  the  oldest  surviving  son  of  Simon, 
became  the  next  Jewish  ruler.  So  imperceptibly  a  royal 
house  had  been  created,  and  the  princely  honor  came  to 
Hyrcanus  by  hereditary  succession.  In  just  that  way 
have  all  Kingly  lines  been  created — starting  with  a 
great  deliverer,  like  Judas  Maccabee,  Hyrcanus  had  not 
only  to  rout  the  new  usurper  before  the  kingdom  could 
become  his,  but  had  also  to  resist  the  siege  of  Antio- 
chus VII.,  the  next  Syrian  king,. who  would  not  yet 
renounce  Judea  without  another  struggle.  Peace  was 
at  last  reached  by  Hyrcanus  agreeing  to  the  payment  of 
tribute  for  a  few  outlying  towns  and  an  indemnity. 

This  first  repulse  showed  that  the  new  kingdom  was 
not  very  strong  and  that  it  owed  its  independence  to 
Syrian  weakness  (due  to  the  continued  conflicts  of 
rivals  and  pretenders) ,  rather  than  to  its  own  material 
power.  But  Syria's  embarrassment  was  Judah's  oppor- 
tunity. J.  Hyrcanus,  once  secure,  began  a  vigorous 
campaign  to  enlarge  his  boundaries  after  Antiochus  had 
been  slain  in  a  Parthian  campaign.  Very  soon  he  had 
incorporated  the  old  land  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  now  called 
Samaria.  The  complete  conquest  of  the  Samaritans 
was  undertaken  toward  the  end  of  his  life.  Their 


PHARISEES    AND    SADDUCEES.  5! 

famous  temple  on  Mt.  Gerizim  was  destroyed.  Idumea 
(Edom)  was  also  conquered  and  Judaism  imposed  by 
force,  but  that  kind  of  conversion  was  always  against 
the  free  and  tolerant  spirit  of  Judaism  and  against  its 
very  genius.  We  shall  later  see  that  it  brought  its  own 
Nemesis  and  weakened  the  cause  of  Israel. 

Let  us  not  forget  that  the  rise  of  the  Hasmoneans 
had  come  about  in  a  measure  through  a  conflict  for 
religious  integrity  between  the  extreme  pietists  on  the 
one  hand,  the  Chassidim,  and  the  worldly  Hellenists  on 
the  other,  with  varied  shades  of  opinion  in  between. 
These  religious  divergences  had  now  crystallized  into 
two  schools  that  acquired  the  names — PHARISEES  and 
SADDUCEES.  It  is  hard  to  say  just  when  these  distinc- 
tions began.  Perhaps  they  were  always  there;  for  we 
meet  the  two  groups — conservative  and  progressive  in 
all  creeds  and  in  nearly  all  eras.  The  division  is  natural. 
It  marks  broadly  tl\e  two  grand  divisions  into  which 
all  human  beings  become  grouped  in  organized  so- 
ciety. 

Now  let  us  consider  in  particular  the  distinctions 
that  differentiated  these  two  parties  in  the  Jewish  State. 
The  Sadducees  were  largely  composed  of  the  priestly 
families — the  priestly  caste,  who  were  not  necessarily 
the  religious  class.  It  corresponded  rather  to  what  we 
would  call  the  aristocracy.  In  this  party  too  were 
largely  the  military.  They  were  faithful  to  the  Mosaic 
Law,  the  Pentateuch,  but  gave  slight  allegiance  to  the 
later  religious  injunctions  that  came  to  be  developed 
from  the  Law  by  the  Scribes.  As  to  their  attitude 
toward  life  in  general,  they  did  not  approve  of  holding 
aloof  from  the  world,  but  encouraged  a  mingling  with 


52  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

it  and  entering  into  intimate  commercial  and  political 
relations  with  other  nations.  They  regarded  it  their 
patriotic  duty  to  aggrandize  the  nation  in  every  way 
and  to  make  it  a  splendid  power. 

The  name  Sadducee  is  derived  from  Zadok,  of  the 
family  of  Aaron,  the  chief  priest  of  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple,  who  thus  gave  his  name  to  the  priestly 
house,  "Sons  of  Zadok." 

The  Pharisees,  while  interpreting  Biblical  law  more 
leniently  in  certain  respects  than  the  Sadducees,  were 
determined  supporters  of  all  the  mass  of  legal  minutiae 
that  had  been  evolved  from  the  Law  proper  and  which 
had  become  a  "Second  Law."  These  rites  and  cere- 
monies that  were  added  to  the  original  Mosaic  code 
(occasionally  by  a  rather  forced  deduction)  they  con- 
sidered equally  binding  with  it.  They  called  it  the 
Oral  Law  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Written  Law,  and 
the  tradition  was  that  it  too  was  revealed  to  Moses. 

In  their  political  policy  they  equally  diverged  from 
the  Sadducees,  believing  in  standing  somewhat  apart 
from  the  peoples  about  them.  They  looked  askance 
upon  too  intimate  relations  with  the  world  at  large;  for 
they  believed  that  we  should  subordinate  all  interests, 
national  and  commercial,  to  the  religious,  trusting  the 
outcome  rather  to  divine  providence  than  to  the  judg- 
ment of  their  statesmen  or  the  enterprise  of  energetic 
leaders.  Further,  as  against  the  priestly  aristocracy, 
that  confined  all  ecclesiastical  functions  to  the  priestly 
order,  the  Pharisees  were  more  democratic  in  that  they 
would  extend  the  privileges  of  priestly  sanctification 
and  holiness  to  all.  Purifying  ablutions,  they  claimed, 
were  obligatory  on  the  whole  people.  Their  meals 


PHARISEES    AND    SADDUCEES.  53 

should  also  be  consecrated,  even  as  the  repasts  of  the 
priests — so  that  all  Israel  should  be  a  "Kingdom  of 
Priests  and  a  Holy  Nation."  Hence,  "Second  Macca- 
bees," a  Pharisaical  work,  declares,  "Unto  all  are  given 
the  heritage,  the  kingdom,  the  priesthood  and  the 
sanctuary." 

These  two  characteristics  of  the  Pharisees  are  ex- 
pressed in  their  name :  Pharash,  the  Law  expounder ; 
Pharash,  the  separatist — though  the  former  is  probably 
its  true  derivation. 

The  Pharisees,  it  will  be  seen,  were  the  more  pious, 
the  Sadducees  the  more  worldly ;  though  the  Pharisees 
as  a  whole  were  not  as  pious  as  the  Chassidim  had  been, 
nor  the  Sadducees  as  worldly  as  the  Hellenists  had 
been.  The  Sadducees  again  had  less  faith  and  denied 
belief  in  bodily  resurrection  or  in  judgment  after  death 
(though  not  necessarily  renouncing  immortality),  on 
the  strength  of  the  famous  teaching  of  Antigonus  of 
Socho,  "Be  not  as  servants  who  serve  the  Master  for 
the  sake  of  reward,  but  rather  as  those  who  serve  the 
Master  without  thought  of  reward."  As  distinct  from 
the  Pharisees  they  were  strong  believers  in  free-will, 
that  the  destiny  of  men  is  in  their  own  hands.  In  their 
attitude  toward  life  we  might  call  them  the  rationalists. 

Some  Pharisees  again  did  carry  the  fulfilment  of 
rites  and  ceremonies  too  far ;  a  few,  perhaps,  were  even 
ostentatious  in  their  piety.  By  strange  mischance  these 
few  have  transferred  their  dubious  reputation  to  all 
Pharisees  as  such.  Most  unjustly  however,  for  the 
Pharisees  earned  the  confidence  of  the  great  bulk  of  the 
people.  So  strangely  has  that  sinister  repute  persisted 
that  Pharisee  is  to-dav  defined  in  some  dictionaries  as 


54  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

self-righteous  or  hypocritical.  How  undeserved  as  de- 
scribing that  group  of  people  whose  trust  in  God  was 
absolute,  without  reservation  or  misgiving.  This  is 
but  one  of  many  instances  where  the  world's  verdict 
has  been  unjust  to  the  Jew.  The  noblest  men  of  later 
days  came  from  the  Pharisees. 

We  meet  also  a  third  party  nearest  in  sympathy  to 
the  Pharisees.  The  old  Chassidim,  the  extremists,  had 
developed  into  the  ascetics  of  the  Jews,  under  the  name 
of  Essenes,  with  a  similar  meaning — pious.  They  lived 
the  life  of  a  communistic  celibate  brotherhood.  They 
hardly  affected  the  national  life  of  Israel,  because  they 
were  too  few  and  because  they  did  not  recognize  pa- 
triotic obligations.  They  practiced  all  the  self-denial 
of  the  Nazarites  of  old  and  sought  to  reach  from  cleanli- 
ness to  godliness.  Another  derivation  of  the  name 
Essene  is  "bather,"  Baptist,  from  their  frequent  ablu- 
tions. 

The  Hasmonean  House — where  did  they  beiong? 
Well,  we  might  say  that  they  began  their  career  with 
all  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  the  Pharisees,  they 
closed  it  with  the  political  outlook  of  the  Sadducees. 
This  was  something  like  an  anti-climax. 

John  Hyrcanus  perhaps  represents  the  dividing  line. 
He  started  on  a  career  of  conquest  simply  to  satisfy 
national  ambition;  though  he  had  forced  Judaism  on 
the  Idumeans.  In  his  later  years,  he  rejected  many 
traditional  observances  of  the  Oral  Law  that  completed 
his  estrangement  from  the  Pharisees.  Taking  a  ma- 
terial and  external  survey,  Hyrcanus  left  the  Jews  at 
the  end  of  his  life  with  an  independent  State,  that  in 
power  and  extent  was  as  great  as  Northern  Israel  in  its 


PHARISEES    AND    SADDUCEES.  55 

palmy  clays,  as  great  perhaps  as  the  realm  of  Solomon. 
He  could  mint  his  own  coins,  on  some  of  which  still  in 
existence,  we  find  inscribed,  "Jochanan,  High. Priest  of 
the  Commonwealth  of  the  Judeans."  Yes,  it  was  all  very 
splendid !  But  surely  the  Jews  had  learned  by  now  the 
insufficiency  of  national  glory  that  was  material  and 
external,  that  that  kind  of  splendor  was  apart  from 
the  Jewish  ideal.  "Not  by  might,  not  by  power,  but  by 
my  spirit,  saith  the  Lord."  The  age  needed  an  Amos 
again.  Alas,  the  era  of  the  Prophets  was  over! 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

"Hasmonean"  was  the  family  name  of  Mattathias, 
afterwards  assumed  by  his  descendants. 

Pharisees  and  Sadducees.  Geiger,  "History  of  the 
Jews,"  Vol.  i,  Chapter  viii. 

The  fact  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  condemned  the  false 
Pharisees  (See  Matthew  xxiii  and  Luke  xi)  has  much 
to  do  with  their  general  condemnation  in  literature. 

The  Talmud  is  also  bitter  against  the  false  Pharisees, 
the  Zebuim,  the  tainted  ones  who  do  evil  like  Zimri 
and  claim  goodly  reward  like  Phineas.  In  its  severe 
denunciation  of  the  false  Pharisees,  it  divides  them  into 
six  classes: 

i.  Those  who  do  the  will  of  God  for  earthly  motives. 
2.  Those  ostentatious  ones  who  go  with  slow  steps  and 
say  "Wait  for  me,  I  have  a  good  deed  to  perform."  3. 
Those  who  knock  their  heads  against  a  wall  because  in 
their  looking  up  they  fear  they  may  see  a  woman.  4. 
Those  who  pose  as  saints.  5.  Those  who  say,  "Tell  me 
of  another  duty."  6.  Those  who  are  pious  because  of 
the  fear  of  God. 

"Who  are  the  genuine  Pharisees?"  asks  the  Talmud. 
"Those  who  do  the  will  of  their  Father  in  Heaven  be- 
cause they  love  Him." 


56  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

A  ROYAL  HOUSE  AGAIN. 

In  ARISTOBULUS,  eldest  son  and  successor  of  John 
Hyrcanus,  we  see  the  Hasmonean  further  and  further 
estranged  from  the  generous  spirit  that  called  them  to 
the  fore.  Judas  Maccabeus  wished  only  to  be  the 
savior  of  Judaism  and  the  Jews,  Aristobulus  wanted 
but  to  be  their  KING.  The  story  of  Abimelech  in  the 
days  of  the  Judges  and  Jotham's  parable  come  forcibly 
tc  mind.  (Judges  ix.)  He  imprisoned  his  mother, 
to  prevent  her  succession  to  the  throne,  according  to 
his  father's  wish,  and  likewise  his  brothers  on  suspicion 
of  treason.  Slander  said  he  slew  them.  But  Antigonus 
was  his  favorite  brother,  and  he  shared  the  royal  power 
with  him.  He  was  certainly  unpopular  with  the  people, 
who  accused  him  of  being  more  Greek  than  Jew. 
Calumny  made  him  even  worse  than  he  was,  ascribing 
to  his  instigation  the  death  of  his  beloved  brother  Anti- 
gonus, who  was  assassinated  toward  the  close  of  his 
reign.  He  continued  his  father's  policy  of  conquest, 
and  together  with  his  brother  subdued  portions  of 
northern  Palestine,  including  Galilee,  and  like  his 
father  again  imposed  Judaism  upon  them.  While  in 
both  instances  the  motive  for  the  forced  conversion  was 
probably  ancestral  pride,  still  it  showed  religious  zeal 
too— though  not  of  the  highest  kind. 

The  widow  of  Aristobulus,  SALOME  ALEXANDRA, 
released  her  husband's  brother  from  prison  at  his  death 
and  by  marrying  ALEXANDER  JANNEUS,  the  eldest, 


A   ROYAL  HOUSE   AGAIN.  57 

and  raising  him  to  the  priesthood,  he  became  king1. 
Like  his  brother,  he  was  not  a  man  of  peace,  but  of 
war.  He  further  increased  Judea's  territory  by  con- 
quest on  the  Western  Philistine  side  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean. 

He  was  not  the  man  to  quiet  the  growing  dissensions 
between  Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  but  rather  to  foment 
them.  For  the  royal  Sadducean  party  was  getting  more 
and  more  estranged  in  policy  and  aim  from  the  national 
and  religious  aspirations  of  the  people.  There  was  a 
not  always  silent  protest  against  the  warrior  king- 
officiating  as  High  Priest.  At  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles, the  people  pelted  him  with  their  citrons,  which 
they  were  carrying  together  with  palms  (lulab  and 
esrog),  symbols  of  the  Harvest  Festival.  This  could 
not  end  without  a  tragedy,  and  a  large  number  were 
slain  by  his  foreign  mercenaries.  This  conflict  grew 
into  a  civil  war,  both  sides  in  turn  hiring  foreign  troops,, 
and  resulted  in  a  terrible  decimating  of  Judah's  num- 
bers, the  Pharisees  losing  most  largely.  Such  is  one  of 
the  evils  of  uniting  religious  authority  with  temporal 
power.  The  rebellion  was  finally  put  down,  but  only 
with  an  iron  hand. 

This  king,  who  could  not  be  at  peace,  spent  his  last 
days  in  fighting  the  Arabians,  who  were  just  beginning 
to  be  Judea's  most  dangerous  neighbor.  He  inherited 
from  his  Maccabean  ancestors  love  of  arms  without 
inheriting  their  military  genius.  This  meant  much 
wanton  waste  of  life  and  some  reverses.  How  vain 
this  purpose  of  spending  blood  and  substance  in  ex- 
tending his  territorial  sway  and  making  it  nominally 
Jewish  by  force  of  arms,  while  fomenting  religious  an- 


58  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

tagonism  at  home — always  destructive  of  religion  itself. 
Such  are  the  ironies  of  life.  He  left  an  even  bigger 
State  than  his  father,  John  Hyrcanus.  Judea  now 
meant  the  whole  seacoast  (with  the  exception  of  As- 
calon)  from  Mi.  Carmel  to  Egypt  and  reached  far 
east  of  the  Jordan. 

The  throne  went  by  will  to  Alexander  Janneus' 
widow,  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  also  the  widow 
of  his  elder  brother,  Aristobulus.  Upon  her  eldest  son, 
Hyrcanus,  Queen  Salome  bestowed  the  high  priesthood. 
Her  sympathies,  however,  were  entirely  with  the  Phari- 
sees. The  exiles  came  back  and  political  prisoners  were 
released.  The  land  enjoyed  a  pleasing  contrast  under 
her  pious  and  gentle  sway.  All  the  Pharisaic  ordi- 
nances abolished  by  the  late  king  were  reinstituted.  In- 
deed, all  the  religious  interests  were  placed  in  their 
hands.  It  was  a  prosperous,  peaceful  reign,  and  was 
looked  back  upon  as  a  blessed  day.  In  the  stormy  days 
that  were  to  follow,  it  might  well  seem  in  retrospect, 
a  golden  age. 

We  have  seen  that  the  High  Priests  were  no  longer 
the  religious  centres  around  which  the  people  rallied. 
The  Jews  had  outgrown  the  age  of  priestism,  although 
the  splendid  ritual  of  the  sacrificial  altar  still  continued. 
The  religious  guides  and  teachers  were  the  scribes, 
learned  in  the  Law,  who  at  this  time  appear  in  couples. 
Hence  they  are  called  the  "Pairs."  The  first  of  each 
pair  held  the  office  of  Nasi,  or  President  of  the  San- 
hedrin,  and  the  second  that  of  Ad  Beth  Din,  or  Vice- 
President. 


A   ROYAL   HOUSE   AGAIN.  59 

These  were: 

Flourished 
about 

1.  Jose    ben    Joezer    and    Jose    ben 

Jochanan . . 170  B.C.E. 

2.  Joshua  ben   Perachia  and  Mattai 

the  Arbelite 140   -    no 

3.  Judah  ben  Tabbai  and  Simon  ben 

Shetach . . 100    -      90 

4.  Shemaiah  and  Abtalyon 65     -     35 

5.  Hillel  and  Shammai. .-..,..,.., 30 

Here  are  some  of  the  most  famous  sayings  attributed 
to  them : 

Jose  ben  Joezer — Let  thy  house  be  a  meeting 
place  for  the  wise.  Cover  thyself  with  the  dust 
of  their  feet  and  quench  thy  thirst  with  their 
words. 

Jose  ben  Joezer — Let  thy  house  be  opened  wide 
and  let  the  needy  be  thy  household. 

Joshua  ben  Perachia — Procure  for  thyself  an 
instructor,  possess  thyself  of  a  worthy  associate, 
and  judge  every  man  in  the  scale  of  merit. 

Mattai  the  Arbelite — Associate  not  with  the 
wicked  and  flatter  not  thyself  that  thou  canst  evade 
punishment. 

Jehudah  ben  Tabbai — Constitute  not  thyself 
dictator  to  the  Judges. 

Shemaiah — Love  labor  and  hate  pomp  and  suf- 
fer thyself  to  remain  unknown  to  the  head  of  the 
State. 

Simon  ben  Shetach  flourished  in  this  reign.  He  was 
brother-in-law  of  the  king,  by  whom  he  had  been  never- 
theless imprisoned.  But  when  the  queen  came  to  the 
throne,  he  was  practically  placed  as  the  religious  head 
of  affairs.  Simon  ben  Shetach  and  his  associate  Tab- 
bai reorganized  the  Council  and  hence  were  called  "re- 


6O  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

storers  of  the  Law."    From  this  time  on  the  Pharisaic 
became  the  official  interpretation  of  Judaism. 

In  all  large  towns  Simon  ben  Shetach  established 
schools  for  young  men  for  the  study  of  Pentateuch  and 
the  laws  interpreted  from  it.  As  President  of  the 
Council,  he  was  very  severe  on  those  who  infringed  on 
the  law.  He  was  even  called  the  Judean  Brutus,  as  he 
did  not  spare  his  own  son.  He  reinstated  many  cus- 
toms that  had  been  neglected  by  the  Sadducean  regime. 
Among  these  was  the  joyous  "Water  Celebration"  dur- 
ing Tabernacles,  a  trace  of  which  still  survives  in  the 
ritual  of  Shemini  Azareth  (the  festival  that  follows. 
Succoth).  The  celebrations  were  accompanied  by  il- 
luminations and  torchlight  processions,  religious 
music  and  dancing.  The  water  drawing  at  the  Spring 
of  Shiloah  was  heralded  by  blasts  of  the  priests'  trum- 
pets. Another  national  custom  revived  was  the  summer 
"Wood  Festival,"  on  Ab  1 5th.  It  had  relation  to  the 
use  of  wood  at  the  altar  fires,  and  was  a  further  op- 
portunity for  joyous  unbending  among  the  youths  and 
maidens. 

The  Pharisees  on  the  whole  were  the  more  demo- 
cratic party,  and  decided  that  the  maintenance  of  the 
Temple  should  be  borne  by  all  and  not  merely  by  vol- 
untary offerings  of  the  rich  few.  This  new  law  brought 
enormous  revenues  to  the  Temple  which  later  became 
its  menace,  attracting  the  covetous  rather  than  the  wor- 
shipper. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Sayings  of  the  Jeivish  Fathers,  Chapter  I.  Taylor : 
Cambridge  Press.  Translations  and  notes. 

These  sayings,  which  form  one  book  of  the  Mishna, 
will  be  found  in  the  Sabbath  Afternoon  Service  of  the 
Jewish  Prayer  Book. 


RIVAL   CLAIMANT   FOR  THE   THRONE  61 

CHAPTER    IX. 

RIVAL  CLAIMANTS  FOR  THE  THRONE. 

Even  before  the  good  Queen  Salome  died,  storm 
clouds  began  to  darken  the  horizon  of  Judah.  Her 
second  son,  ARISTOBULUS,  inherited  all  his  father's 
fierceness  and  tyranny.  The  throne  had  been  naturally 
left  to  the  elder  brother,  Hyrcanus,  but  the  headstrong 
Aristobulus  was  determined  to  grasp  the  reins  of  power, 
though  it  might  cause  blood  and  treasure.  So  civil 
war  began  before  the  good  queen  had  quite  breathed 
her  last.  Hyrcanus,  the  weak,  yielded,  and  all  might 
have  been  well  were  it  not  for  the  interference  of  a 
new  enemy  who  was  eventually  to  bring  about  the  ruin 
of  the  Jewish  State. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  John  Hyrcanus  had  conquered 
the  Idumeans  and  made  them  seemingly  Jews.  We 
shall  now  see  the  kind  of  Jews  they  were.  One,  Anti- 
pater,  was  the  local  governor  of  this  Idumean  province. 
He  was  a  man  who  lusted  for  power  and  had  absolutely 
no  scruples  as  to  the  means  of  gaining  his  ends.  He 
saw  that  with  the  weak  Hyrcanus  on  the  throne,  he 
might  become  a  power  behind  it. 

He  began  by  insinuating  himself  into  the  favor  of 
the  Jewish  nobility,  and,  ostensibly,  as  a  pleader  for 
justice,  emphasized  the  evils  of  Aristobulus'  usurpa- 
tion. Letting  that  poison  work,  he  came  to  the  innocent 
Hyrcanus  and  played  upon  his  fears  with  a  made-up 
story  of  conspiracy  against  his  life.  Most  reluctantly 
was  Hyrcanus  persuaded  to  flee  with  him  from  Jeru- 
salem to  an  Arabian  prince,  Aretas. .  Aretas  was  in- 


62  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

duced  to  lend  his  aid  in  the  expectation  that  Hyrcanus, 
once  in  power,  would  restore  the  cities  Alexander  Jan- 
neus  had  taken  from  the  Arabians. 

So  unhappy  Judah  was  plunged  in  war  again  to 
gratify  the  unworthy  ambitions  of  unworthy  men. 
Aristobulus  was  defeated  in  battle  by  Aretas  and  was 
besieged  in  the  Temple  Mount. 

An  interesting  incident  is  told  at  this  juncture  that 
recalls  the  Bible  story  of  Balaam.  In  the  party  of 
Hyrcanus  there  was  a  man,  Onias,  whom  rumor  said 
had  brought  rain  in  times  of  drought  through  his  fer- 
vent prayer.  He  was  now  brought  into  the  camp  and 
asked  to  invoke  God's  curse  on  Aristobulus  and  his 
allies.  But  such  prayer  he  considered  blasphemous, 
therefore  he  voiced  his  petition  to  heaven  in  these 
words :  "O  God,  King  of  the  whole  world,  since  those 
that  stand  now  with  me  are  Thy  people  and  those  that 
are  besieged  are  also  Thy  priests,  I  beseech  Thee  that 
Thou  wilt  neither  hearken  to  the  prayer  of  those  against 
these,  nor  bring  about  what  these  pray  against  those." 
Alas,  the  temper  of  warfare  had  not  patience  or  ap- 
preciation with  this  sublime  attitude.  The  man  was 
stoned.  But  in  a  sense  his  prayer  was  answered. 

For  the  Aesop  fable  of  the  two  bears  quarrelling 
over  a  find,  thus  affording  opportunity  for  a  third  to 
step  in  and  seize  it,  was  here  to  be  exemplified.  Rome 
was  ever  on  the  watch  to  bring  all  outlying  provinces 
into  her  net.  Pompey,  her  victorious  general,  whose 
head  Julius  Caesar  was  later  to  demand,  was  just  now 
making  his  triumphant  march  through  Asia.  The 
brothers,  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus,  appealed  to  his 
lieutenant.  To  leave  the  decision  with  Rome  was  a 


RIVAL    CLAIMANTS    FOR   THE   THRONE.  63 

dangerous  precedent,  for  the  power  that  could  grant 
a  throne  by  its  decision  might  also  take  it  away.  So, 
while  it  was  rendered  in  favor  of  Aristobulus,  it  was 
as  a  vassal  rather  than  as  independent  king  that  he  held 
his  throne  for  some  two  years.  The  real  gainer  was 
Rome.  It  had  now  the  right  to  revoke  its  decision; 
and  it  did.  The  people,  disgusted  with  their  unworthy 
leaders  who  cared  nothing  for  the  nation,  but  only  for 
its  honors — appealed  to  Rome  to  abolish  the  monarchy 
lhat  had  been  gradually  introduced  and  restore  the  old 
regime  of  the  High  Priesthood. 

But  Aristobulus  dared  resist  even  Rome  and  en- 
trenched himself  against  invasion.  This  was  fatal  both 
for  him  and  Judea.  The  Temple  Mount  was  besieged. 
It  was  taken  with  frightful  massacre  by  lustful  Romans. 
This  was  in  63.  Pompey  entered  the  Holy  of  Holies 
(a  sacrilegious  act  in  the  eyes  of  the  Jews),  in  which, 
to  his  surprise  he  found  no  idol.  He  curtailed  the 
Jewish  State  and  made  it  tributary.  Aristobulus  must 
grace  Pompey's  triumph  at  Rome. 

So  much  for  the  vain  conquests  of  John  Hyrcanus 
and  Alexander  Janneus.  They  evaporated  with  a  word 
from  Pompey.  Thus  ended  the  Judean  independence 
for  which  the  early  Maccabees  had  fought  so  nobly. 
It  had  endured  but  seventy-nine  years.  Over  this 
tributary  State  Hyrcanus  II.  was  made  High  Priest. 
The  kingship  created  by  the  first  Aristobulus  was  short- 
Jived  indeed. 


64  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER    X. 

JUDEA  UNDER  ROMAN  SUZERAINTY. 

Rome,  from  the  city  on  the  Tiber,  had  spread  over 
all  Italy.  Then  gradually  it  mastered  the  lands  on  both 
sides  of  the  Mediterranean.  Greece  and  Carthage  were 
absorbed  in  the  same  year,  146.  Soon  its  tide  of  con- 
quest reached  to  Asia,  and  all  the  lands  won  by  Alex- 
ander— excepting  Persia — were  under  its  sway.  When 
Syria,  Judah's  quondam  over-lord,  fell  before  its  arms, 
it  inevitably  followed  that  Judea  would  eventually  suc- 
cumb at  its  approach,  even  without  the  unhappy  series 
of  events  that  hastened  it.  In  a  sense  Rome  was  be- 
coming the  "Mistress  of  the  World."  Nor  was  her 
sway  as  transitory  as  that  of  earlier  world  powers — 
Assyria,  Babylonia,  Persia  and  Macedonia.  It  was  to 
endure  for  many  centuries  and  it  has  left  a  lasting  im- 
press upon  the  world's  civilization. 

Already  the  captives  that  Pompey  took  to  Rome, 
later  freed  and  called  Libertini,  formed  together  with 
earlier  emigrants  the  beginnings  of  an  important  Jew- 
ish community.  Here  later  still  we  find  this  Jewish 
colony  on  the  Tiber  quietly  influencing  Roman  affairs. 

Judea,  with  the  rest  of  Palestine,  was  now  placed 
under  the  general  supervision  of  Rome's  Syrian  gov- 
ernor. Internally  its  life  was  not  interfered  with,  but 
all  temporal — that  is  political — power  was  taken  from 
the  High  Priest.  His  authority  was  confined  to  the 
Temple.  Both  Aristobulus,  who  had  escaped  from 
Rome,  and  his  son,  Alexander,  made  foolhardy  at- 
tempts for  the  throne,  which  only  resulted  in  further 


JUDEA    UNDER    ROMAN    SUZERAINTY.  65 

curtailing  of  Judah's  power.  Yet  another  abortive  at- 
tempt and  thirty  thousand  of  the  defeated  malcontents 
were  sold  into  slavery.  This  chafing  against  its  rule 
only  brought  Rome's  mailed  hand  more  fiercely  against 
them. 

Rome  now  entered  upon  its  own  period  of  civil  war 
when  men  lustful  of  power  drenched  their  country  in 
blood.  In  B.  c.  60  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey  and  Crassus 
divided  the  Roman  possessions  between  them  and 
formed  the  First  Triumvirate.  Crassus,  being  given 
Syria,  plundered  the  Temple  treasures.  On  the  death 
of  Crassus,  Caesar,  ambitious  for  supreme  power — the 
fatal  weakness  of  this  really  great  man — crossed  the 
river  Rubicon  that  was  the  boundary  of  his  province 
of  Gaul,  made  war  on  Pompey,  who  was  soon  slain, 
and  held  for  a  brief  time  sole  sway.  In  44  Caesar  was 
killed  by  Brutus  and  Cassius.  These  in  turn  were 
overthrown  by  Caesar's  avenger,  Marc  Antony,  and  a 
new  Triumvirate  was  formed,  consisting  of  Antony, 
Octavus  (Augustus)  and  Lepidus.  These  were  as  dis- 
loyal to  each  other  as  the  first  group.  Antony,  seduced 
from  his  duty  by  the  witchery  of  that  fatally  beautiful 
woman,  Cleopatra  of  Egypt,  was  finally  defeated  and 
overthrown  in  the  battle  of  Actium,  30.  Octavius  Au- 
gustus now  held  the  reins  alone  and  the  Roman  Em- 
pire was  launched.  Augustus,  the  first  emperor, 
reigned  from  B.  c.  c.  30  to  A.  c.  E.  14. 

These  few  outlines  of  Roman  history  will  have  to  be 
kept  in  mind  to  follow  events  in  Judea,  for  much  was  to 
happen  to  storm-tossed  Israel  between  the  first  Trium- 
virate and  the  empire  of  Augustus.  Every  change  in 
government  at  Rome  affected  the  land  of  Israel.  In- 


66  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

deed,  in  all  their  subsequent  history  no  great  event  oc- 
curred in  the  world  without  affecting  the  Jews  in  some 
way,  and  many  of  these  world  events  were  in  turn  in- 
fluenced by  them. 

When  Pompey  was  killed  in  48,  that  arch-conspira- 
tor, Antipater,  who  had  sided  with  him  while  in  power, 
now  with  Hyrcanus,  his  puppet,  professed  friendship 
for  Caesar,  helping  him  with  Jewish  troops  for  his 
Egyptian  campaign.  Caesar  extended  favors  to  both. 
Hyrcanus  as  High  Priest  was  once  more  given  political 
authority,  and  Antipater  was  made  Procurator  of 
Judea.  Mark  the  thin  entering  of  the  wedge.  Permis- 
sion was  granted  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalw^i,  and 
concessions  and  privileges  were  also  conferred^ 
Jews  of  Alexandria  and  Asia  Minor,  for 
reached  far.  So  the  Jews  sorely  lamenj 
death. 

The  political  power  granted  to  Hyr 
Priest  carried  with  it  the  title  of  Ethnarch, 
governor  of  a  province.  But  all  power 
ercised  by  Antipater  who,  as  Procurator  of  J|id< 
his  son  Phasael  governor  of  Jerusalem,  and  hafPSon 
Herod  governor  of  Galilee.  How  this  intf&ding 
stranger  had  tightened  his  grip  on  the  land  §^-our 
fathers ! 

Herod  was  to  play  an  important  role  in  Judah's  for- 
tunes. Already  as  governor  of  Galilee,  a  youth  of 
twenty-five,  he  showed  his  masterfulness  in  the  sum- 
mary execution  of  a  marauder.  Summoned  to  the 
Sanhedrin,  and  knowing  how  much  Rome  had  reduced 
its  power,  he  defied  it ;  for  at  this  moment  Caesar,  hav- 
ing been  slain,  Cassius  was  master  of  Syria.  He  was 


JUDEA    UNDER    ROMAN    SUZERAINTY.  67 

aided  by  the  craftily  adaptive  Antipater  and  Herod, 
who  succeeded  in  squeezing  money  from  Judea  for  the 
maintenance  of  their  army  against  Antony.  Herod 
was  now  made  governor  of  Caelo- Syria  and  could 
snap  his  fingers  at  the  Sanhedrin.  Judea,  in  fact,  was 
a  prey  to  anarchy. 

In  42  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated  at  Philippi 
by  Antony  and  Octavian,  and  it  seemed  that  an  end 
had  come  to  the  fortunes  of  Herod.  His  father  had 
been  slain,  caught  in  a  final  act  of  heartless  duplicity 
against  Hyrcanus.  But  Herod  had  the  adroit  cunning 
of  his  father  and  knew  how  to  desert  a  sinking  ship 
and  change  his  allegiance  to  the  man  of  rising  fortunes. 
With  plausible  words  Herod  made  his  peace  with  An- 
tony. Nor  could  the  complaints  against  him  and  his 
brother  by  the  Jewish  nobility  avail  any.  On  the  con- 
trary, Antony  made  them  both  tetrachs — subordinate 
governors — of  Judea  at  the  expense  of  the  weak  and 
aging  Hyrcanus. 

ANTIGONUS,  a  son  of  Aristobulus,  taking  advantage 
of  a  Parthian  uprising,  made  one  more  effort  to  seize 
the  Jewish  throne.  Herod  was  put  to  flight  and  Hyr- 
canus deposed  altogether.  This  last  scion  of  the  Has- 
monean  house  held  a  brief  royal  sway  from  40  to  37. 
He  lacked  the  greatness  of  the  earlier  Hasmoneans  to 
hold  the  nation  and  antagonized  the  Sanhedrin  instead 
of  attaching  it  to  him.  Herod,  after  varied  shifts, 
sailed  to  Rome,  making  an  appeal  at  headquarters.  De- 
ceiving all  by  his  plausibility,  he  obtained  an  appoint- 
ment as  "King  of  Judea"  from  Antony's  senate.  But 
for  that  throne  he  must  now  fight  the  man  in  posses- 
sion. There  followed  a  series  of  engagements  in 


68  A  THOUSAND  YEA*RS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

which  Jewish  blood  flowed  freely.  With  the  aid  of 
Rome,  Herod  was  of  course  successful,  ultimately  tak- 
ing Jerusalem  itself.  Antigonus  was  put  to  death,  and 
this  ended  the  Maccabean — or  rather  the  Hasmonean 
— rule  in  Judea  so  gloriously  begun  a  little  over  a  cen- 
tury before. 


CHAPTER    XI. 
HEROD. 

What  had  been  the  result  of  the  attempt  of  Alexan- 
der Janneus  to  force  Judaism  upon  Idumea?  It  had 
given  Antipater,  from  the  intimate  relations  created, 
the  opportunity  to  make  Hyrcanus  his  puppet,  and 
ended  by  placing  the  Jewish  crown  upon  the  head  of 
Herod  who  was  absolutely  unjewish  in  ancestry  and 
sympathies  and  really  a  pagan  at  heart.  Herod,  in  fact, 
delivered  Judea  to  Rome  that  he  might  be  made  its 
vassal  king. 

He  had  married  Marianne,  the  beautiful  daughter 
of  the  weak  Hyrcanus — a  stroke  of  policy,  to  be  allied 
in  marriage  to  Judah's  royal  family. 

Undoubtedly  he  was  a  man  of  power  of  a  sort,  born 
to  command ;  but  there  was  no  soft  spot  in  his  nature. 
He  had  all  the  instincts  of  a  tyrant,  and  neither  scruple 
nor  pity  deterred  him  from  carrying  out  his  passionate 
will  and  his  insatiable  ambition.  He  inherited  all  his 
father's  cunning  allied  to  fine  judgment  and  untiring 


HEROD.  69 

energy.     Though  of  undoubted  bravery,  he  knew  how 
to  fawn  before  those  in  power. 

The  first  dozen  years  of  his  reign  were  marked  by 
storm  and  conflict  with  enemies  both  without  and 
within.  The  feelings  of  the  Jews  can  be  imagined  in 
having  this  alien  thrust  upon  them  by  all-powerful 
Rome  and  whose  first  act  was  to  slay  their  patriots 
and  confiscate  their  property.  Rebellion  was  put  down 
with  a  merciless  hand.  Step  by  step  he  carried  out 
his  relentless  purpose  and  put  to  death  all  the  survivors 
of  the  royal  line,  the  flower  of  the  Jewish  nobility,  and 
likewise  every  member  of  the  Sanhedrin  that  had  some 
years  before  censured  one  of  his  misdeeds. 

Very  unwillingly  he  appointed  his  wife's  brother 
as  High  Priest.  It  was  a  fatal  distinction  for  the  young 
man,  for  the  people  too  openly  expressed  their  regard 
for  this  scion  of  the  Hasmonean  line.  What  was  the 
consequence?  One  day  when  refreshing  himself  in 
the  bath,  he  was  held  under  the  water  till  life  was  ex- 
tinct. It  was  called  an  accident !  Alexandra,  his  moth- 
er, a  hard  woman,  appealed  to  Rome  through  Cleo- 
patra to  punish  this  murder.  Herod  wa,s  summoned  to 
answer  for  his  conduct  before  Antony,  but  his  plausible 
manner  aided  by  bribery  won  his  acquittal.  The  tyrant 
marked  his  return  by  the  execution  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  to  whom  he  had  entrusted  Marianne  in  his  ab- 
sence, and  against  whom  his  jealousy  imagined  be- 
trayal. 

That  Antony  at  this  time  gave  part  of  Palestine 
proper  to  Cleopatra,  including  even  a  bit  of  Judea,  and 
that  Herod  the  Strong  must  bear  it  without  protest, 
showed  on  what  slender  tenure  he  held  his  throne.  So 


7O  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

completely  was  he  under  Rome's  control  that  Antony, 
to  satisfy  the  whim  of  Cleopatra  who  disliked  Herod, 
commanded  him  to  undertake  a  campaign  against  the 
Arabians,  while  she  secretly  assisted  them. 

When  Antony  fell  at  Actium  in  '31  in  that  contest 
between  continents,  Herod  managed  adroitly  at  the 
right  moment  to  go  over  to  the  side  of  the  victorious 
Octavius  Augustus,  Rome's  first  emperor.  As  a  need- 
less precaution  he  put  to  death  his  own  father-in-law, 
the  aged  Hyrcanus,  to  whose  weakness  he  in  a  meas- 
ure owed  his  throne. 

Soon  in  the  good  graces  of  Augustus,  he  received 
back  all  the  lands  taken  from  him  by  Cleopatra.  But 
before  his  departure  for  Rome  to  pay  homage  to  Au- 
gustus, he  had  repeated  the  order  given  prior  to  his 
previous  visit,  that  Marianne  should  be  put  to  death 
in  case  his  cause  should  take  a  fatal  turn  in  Rome. 
Learning  of  this  revolting  plan  in  his  absence,  she  up- 
braided him  on  his  return.  This  gave  his  envious 
relatives  opportunity  to  slander  her  and  defame  her 
honor.  The  jealous  Herod  believed  the  calumny  against 
his  innocent  wife  and — think  of  it — ordered  her  to  be 
put  to  death,  though,  in  his  savage,  sensual  way  he 
loved  her.  Remorse  came  too  late,  which  wild  excesses 
could  not  drown.  Soon  her  mother  followed  her  to 
the  block  on  the  better  founded  charge  of  conspiracy. 
More  deeds  of  needless  bloodshed  were  perpetrated  by 
his  wanton  command  until  every  remnant  of  the  Has- 
monean  house  was  destroyed. 

Herod  was  a  renowned  builder.  He  wanted  to  have 
a  splendid  capital  with  which  he  might  dazzle  Roman 


HEROD.  71 

grandees  and  foreign  plenipotentiaries.  Notice  the 
bent  of  his  mind — his  conception  of  a  monarch — not 
a  father  of  his  people  living  up  to  an  ich  dien  maxim, 
but  the  possessor  of  power  and  glory.  He  must  needs 
have  grandeur  without,  though  there  was  misery 
enough  within.  So  we  have  temples,  amphitheatres, 
and  hippodromes.  He  built  for  himself  a  palace  that 
was  a  fortress  too,  with  parks  and  gardens  around  it. 
New  cities  were  laid  out,  not  for  the  honor  of  Israel, 
but  for  the  honor  of  Augustus  Caesar,  and  named  after 
him.  Samaria  was  rebuilt  and  renamed  Sebaste.  He 
rebuilt  a  city  on  the  coast  and  called  it  Caesaria,  with 
a  fine  haven.  One  he  named  Antipatris  after  his  father, 
another  after  his  brother,  Phasaelis;  Agrippaeum,  after 
Agrippa,  and  Herodium,  a  stronghold,  after  himself. 
Existing  strongholds  were  restored  and  strengthened. 
Nor  did  he  neglect  to  mark  the  outlying  provinces  with 
examples  of  his  building  passion. 

The  old  Temple  of  Zerubbabel  now  looked  shabby 
among  these  fine  edifices,  and  he  determined  to  rebuild 
it.  This  was  one  of  his  great  achievements.  There 
was  no  religious  motive  whatever  in  the  project,  for 
he  had  built  outside  of  Jerusalem  many  heathen  shrines. 
The  purpose  was  wholly  worldly.  If  there  is  to  be  a 
Temple,  let  it  be  gorgeous  to  gratify  vanity.  It  took 
many  years  to  build  and  was  not  finished  till  long  after 
Herod's  death.  The  whole  circumference  of  the 
Temple,  including  the  fortress  of  Antonia  connected 
with  it,  covered  almost  a  mile.  It  must  have  been 
magnificent,  for  a  proverb  arose,  "He  who  has  not  seen 
Herod's  building  has  never  seen  anything  beautiful." 
Yet,  with  all  his  grandeur,  remember  he  was  but  a 


A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

subject  king  under  the  sway  of  the  Roman  emperor. 
He  could  not  make  treaties  or  war  without  the  consent 
of  the  emperor,  to  whom  he  had  to  supply  on  demand 
troops  and  money. 

The  introduction  of  heathen  games  in  theatres  and 
race-courses,  in  which  the  lives  of  gladiators  and  run- 
ners were  lightly  sacrificed  to  gratify  the  brutal  instincts 
of  the  spectators,  deeply  grieved  the  faithful  Jews.  It 
was  in  such  violent  antagonism  to  the  ethics  of  Juda- 
ism. But  what  could  they  do  ?  They  were  in  the  power 
of  this  pagan  tyrant. 

He  gathered  in  his  capital,  too,  Greek  litterateurs 
and  artists.  To  these  scholars  were  given  state  posi- 
tions of  trust.  But  this  was  no  more  an  indication  of 
love  of  culture  than  Temple  building  was  love  of  re- 
ligion. Ostentation  was  at  the  root  of  both. 

Yet  the  Pharisaic  party  (the  great  mass  of  the 
people)  was  too  strong  for  him  to  carry  his  paganizing 
influence  as  far  as  he  wished.  He  ungraciously  yielded, 
out  of  prudence,  now  and  then  to  the  religious  sensibil- 
ities of  the  people.  The  building  of  the  sanctuary 
proper  he  entrusted  to  priests,  nor  were  images  placed 
on  the  Jerusalem  buildings.  But  the  Roman  eagle  was 
later  erected  over  the  Temple  gate.  For  an  attempt  to 
remove  the  eagle,  forty  young  men  zealous  for  the 
law  were  burnt  alive.  The  Jewish  Sanhedrin  was  shorn 
of  all  power. 

He  appointed  unfit  men  as  High  Priests  and  removed 
them  when  they  did  not  do  his  bidding.  That  such 
appointments  should  be  left  in  his  unsympathetic 
hands !  Finally,  the  people  were  heavily  taxed  to  sup- 
port heathen  splendor  of  which  they  did  not  approve. 


HEROD. 


73 


So  his  reign,  so  hateful  to  them,  was  maintained  only 
by  despotism  and  force.  An  attempt  was  even  made 
to  assassinate  him.  The  people  had  to  be  watched  by 
spies.  Yet  in  the  year  25  he  brought  all  his  energies 
to  the  fore  to  save  the  people  from  the  consequences 
of  famine.  Let  us  remember  this  in  his  favor;  also 
that  he  used  his  power  to  secure  protection  for  Jews 
in  the  Diaspora. 

By  paying  lavish  court  to  the  emperor  and  his  son- 
in-law,  Agrippa,  his  territory  was  gradually  doubled. 
A  splendid  kingdom  viewed  superficially,  but  it  brought 
no  happiness  to  this  unscrupulous  man.  Peace  in  the 
home,  domestic  joy,  these  are  the  things  that  prowess 
and  power  cannot  buy.  The  story  of  how  this  bar- 
barian had  put  to  death  his  favorite  wife,  Marianne, 
has  already  been  told.  Two  of  her  sons,  Alexander 
and  Aristobulus,  were  now  grown  to  man's  estate.  But 
his  sister,  the  wicked  Salome,  who  had  plotted  against 
the  mother,  now  tried  to  fill  the  king's  mind  with 
suspicions  against  her  sons.  In  this  purpose  she  was 
aided  by  Antipater,  son  of  Herod  by  another  of  his 
wives.  Learning  that  their  mother  had  been  put  to 
death  by  their  father's  mandate,  they  openly  expressed 
their  anger,  which  so  increased  the  king's  suspicions, 
that  he  accused  his  sons  before  the  emperor.  The  mild- 
ness of  Augustus  could  only  postpone  the  eventual 
tragedy — the  execution  of  the  young  men  by  order  of 
their  own  father.  Antipater — the  real  conspirator 
against  Herod,  though  his  favorite  son, — was  at  last 
detected,  and  of  course  executed  also.  Surely  the  lat- 
ter days  of  this  king  were  bitter. 

These  domestic  troubles  were  aggravated  by  bodily 


74  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

disease  and  the  knowledge  that  he  was  hated  by  his 
people.  Determined  to  be  mourned  at  all  costs,  he  im- 
prisoned some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the 
nation  with  orders  that  they  were  to  be  killed  at  the 
moment  of  his  death.  Thus  would  he  obtain  a  mourn- 
ing at  his  funeral !  Was  not  this  the  climax  of  savag- 
ery? This  fiendish  purpose  was,  however,  never  car- 
ried out,  so  he  died  unwept  and  unmourned. 

He  is  called  "Great"  to  distinguish  him  from  some 
puny  Herods  that  followed  in  the  fast  dying  Jewish 
State.  We  can  call  him  "Great"  only  in  the  bad  sense — 
an  awful  example  of  the  abuse  of  power  in  the  hands 
of  an  unscrupulous  and  blood-thirsty  man. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Marianne:  Zirndorf,  "Some  Jewish  Women." 
(Jewish  Pub.  Society.)  Grace  Aguilar,  "Women  of 
Israel/' 

In  Talmudic  literature  "Edom"  is  often  a  disguised 
term  for  Rome,  because  in  the  Bible  story  Esau  is  the 
rival  of  Jacob.  When  we  remember  that  Antipater  and 
Herod  were  Idumeans  (Edom)  and  that  they  practi- 
cally delivered  Judea  to  Rome  for  the  price  of  a  crown, 
the  rabbinic  usage  is  peculiarly  appropriate. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

HlLLEL. 

Let  us  now  take  a  glance  at  the  religious  life  of  Judah 
in  this  reign.  Hillel  was  made  president  of  the  San- 
hedrin  in  the  year  30.  A  new  direction  was  given  to 
the  development  of  rabbinic  Judaism  under  his  guid- 


HILLEL.  75 

ance.  He  was  the  greatest  Jewish  teacher  since  Ezra. 
Like  Ezra,  too,  he  came  from  Babylon,  which  had  re- 
mained a  Jewish  centre  since  the  exile,  600  B.  c.  E., 
and  was  to  continue  to  be  a  Jewish  centre  for  many 
centuries  later.  Pleasing  stories  are  told  of  the  sacri- 
fices made  by  this  poor  boy  to  gratify  his  thirst  for 
knowledge,  once  almost  frozen  to  death  while  lying 
on  the  roof  to  hear  the  discussion,  since  he  could  not 
hear  it  from  within.  Ultimately  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Sanhedrin  where  at  first  he  was  a  beggar 
at  its  doors.  Great  as  he  was  as  the  expounder  of  the 
Law,  he  is  perhaps  best  known  by  the  sweetness  of  his 
character.  None  could  put  him  out  of  temper,  it  is 
said.  He  united  in  himself  gentleness  and  firmness. 

Many  interesting  instances  are  given  of  his  evenness 
of  disposition  that  disarmed  the  violent  and  won  many 
a  convert  to  the  fold,  where  the  brusqueness  of  his  col- 
league— Shammai — often  drove  them  away.  He  thus 
became  the  peacemaker.  In  this  connection  he  taught, 
"Be  of  the  disciples  of  Aaron — loving  and  pursuing 
peace,  loving  mankind  and  bringing  them  nigh  to  the 
Law."  His  consideration  for  others  went  so  far  that 
a  man  of  standing,  becoming  suddenly  poor,  he  pro- 
vided him  with  a  horse  and  servant  that  he  might  still 
enjoy  some  of  the  comforts  of  his  earlier  life. 

He  is  the  author  of  the  famous  Golden  Rule  in  its 
earliest  form,  uttered  in  reply  to  a  heathen  who  would 
have  him  teach  the  whole  Law  while  he  stood  on  one 
foot.  "That  which  is  hateful  to  thee  do  not  unto  thy 
neighbor.  This  is  the  principle,  all  the  rest  is  com- 
mentary." 


/6  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

In  the  following-  maxims  many  phases  of  his  char- 
acter are  revealed : 

"He  who  wishes  to  raise  his  name,  lowers  it." 
"A  name  made  great  is  a  name  destroyed." 
"My  humility  is  my  exaltation:  my  exaltation 

is  my  humility." 

"He  who  will  not  Jearn  or  teach  deserves  death." 
"He  who  does  not  progress,  retrogrades." 
"Say  not,  'when  I  have  time  I  will  study,'  for 

you  may  never  have  leisure." 

"Trust  not  thyseif  till  the  day  of  thy  death." 
"In  a  place  where  there  is  no  man,  strive  to 

show  thyself  a  man." 

"If  I  am  not  for  myself,  who  will  be  for  me? 

But  if  I  am  for  myself  alone,  what  am  I?    And 

if  not  now,  when  ?" 

Do  you  realize  how  much  is  contained  in  that  brief 
sentence?  Unravel  it  and  you  will  see  revealed  his 
philosophy  of  life. 

So  gentle,  he  was  yet,  daring.  Where  an  old  law 
was  abused,  he  ventured  to  modify  it.  The  Law,  for 
example,  for  release  of  debts  every  seventh  year,  made 
particularly  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  (Deut.,  xv), 
hampered  the  growth  of  trade  in  more  complex  times 
and  changed  a  generous  purpose  into  an  occasional 
embarrassment.  In  such  cases  Hillel  allowed  the  stip- 
ulation to  be  stated  in  the  contract  that  the  law  of  re- 
lease was  to  be  suspended. 

To  Hillel  is  due  the  important  service  of  devising 
a  logical  system  of  deduction  by  which  laws  to  meet 
new  needs  could  be  developed  out  of  the  simpler  and 
briefer  Bible  code.  It  must  be  confessed  that  these 
deductions  were  ocasionally  far-fetched.  None  the  less 


HILLEL.  77 

the  custom  prevailed  among  the  rabbis  to  make  laws 
for  all  exigencies  in  that  way  for  many  centuries  to 
come.  The  practice  arose  from  the  reverence  paid  the 
Law  that  induced  them  to  seek  authority  for  every 
regulation  they  found  needful,  in  the  pages  of  Holy 
Writ.  We  might  say  it  was  a  virtue  carried  to  the 
extreme  of  a  fault.  Hillel's  Seven  Rules  gave  new 
force  to  the  Oral  Law.  So  he  was  called  the  "Re- 
generator of  the  Law." 

In  Hillel  and  Shammai  the  "Pairs"  referred  to  in 
Chapter  viii  reached  their  culmination.  A  teaching 
of  Shammai  ran,  "Say  little  but  do  much."  These 
two  men  were  the  founders  of  two  distinct  schools  of 
interpretation  of  Jewish  Law.  They  were  as  distinct 
in  their  character  as  in  their  exposition  of  Scripture. 
Hillel  was  broad,  tolerant  and  original;  Shammai — 
narrow,  strict,  and  conservative.  Hillel's  opinions 
were  usually  accepted  by  later  generations. 

"Where  go  you,  Master,"  said  his  disciples  one  day 
when  he  hastened  from  the  house  of  learning.  "I  go 
to  meet  a  guest,"  Hillel  replied.  "Who  is  this  guest 
of  whom  thou  so  often  speakest?"  The  sweetness  of 
the  master's  face  deepened  into  earnestness.  "My 
guest  is  my  soul.  Too  often  in  intercourse  with  the 
world  must  its  claims  be  pushed  aside." 

But  the  day  came,  as  indeed  it  must,  when  the  soul 
was  summoned  to  a  greater  tribunal  than  his  own. 
The  day  of  Hillel's  death  was  a  day  of  mourning  in 
Israel.  "O.  pious,  gentle,  worthy  follower  of  Ezra," 
cried  the  sorrowing  people. 

Such  was  the  love  and  esteem  in  which  he  was  held 
by  the  scholars  of  his  own  and  later  ages,  that  the  pres- 


7&  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

iclency  of  the  Sanhedrin  was  kept  in  his  family  for 
four  centuries,  thus  almost  treated  like  a  Royal  Line; 
and  in  this  way  his  memory  reverenced  for  many  gen- 
erations. 

To  the  Shammai  school  we  owe  the  many  stringent 
prohibitions  with  regard  to  the  Sabbath  and  to  ec- 
clesiastical purity.  They  objected  even  to  teach  the 
young  to  visit  the  sick  and  comfort  mourners  on  the 
Sabbath  day.  We  are  glad  to  state  that  Jewish  practice 
has  taken  the  opposite  view.  The  rabbis  of  the  Sham- 
mai school  were  severe  in  their  religious  decisions,  in 
the  interpretation  of  patriotism  and  in  their  views  of 
life  generally.  We  might  compare  them  with  the  first 
Puritan  settlers  in  America. 

This  school  was  against  the  admission  of  proselytes 
from  the  heathen.  Yet  in  those  stormy  times,  these 
severe  views  against  the  heathen  found  the  larger  fol- 
lowing. From  these  doubtless  came  the  band  of 
ZEALOTS —  those  awful  irreconcilables  whose  fanatic 
hatred  of  Rome  and  its  institutions  became  almost 
a  religion,  and  whose  deeds  form  a  lurid  chapter  in 
Judah's  closing  days. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

See  Geiger's  History  of  Judaism,  Vol.  I,  Chap. 
VIII. 

Sayings  of  Jewish  Fathers,  Taylor,  pp.  34  to  37. 
Hillel,  Jeivish  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  VI. 


HEROD'S  SUCCESSORS  79 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

HEROD'S  SUCCESSORS. 

The  selfish  Herod  had  split  up  his  kingdom  among 
his  three  sons — Archelaus,  Antipas  and  Philip.  Before 
Rome  had  yet  confirmed  the  succession,  and  while  a 
procurator  was  placed  in  temporary  charge,  already 
the  sons  were  intriguing  against  each  other.  Rome 
carried  out  Herod's  wishes,  only  that  his  sons  were 
made  Tetrarchs  (governor  of  a  fourth  part  of  the 
province),  instead  of  kings.  How  steadily  Rome 
moved  toward  its  purposed  end! 

Archelaus  was  made  Tetrarch  of  Judea  Samaria  and 
Idumea.  The  realm  of  Antipas  was  Galilee  and  Perea, 
the  Jordan  dividing  the  two  districts.  To  Philip  was 
given  the  remaining  provinces  of  Bacanaea  and  Tra- 
chonitis  in  northern  Palestine. 

A  brief  word  on  each  of  these  principalities. 
PHILIP  held  a  mild  sway  for  thirty-seven  years. 
There  is  nothing  to  record  in  these  outlying  provinces, 
partly  because  they  were  far  removed  from  the  Jewish 
centre  of  gravity. 

The  realm  of  ANTIPAS  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  was  a  little  nearer.  His  recognition 
of  Judaism  was  only  formal.  He  inherited  all  his 
father's  vices  and  like  his  father,  too,  he  was  a  great 
builder.  He  built  Emmaus  in  Galilee,  and  Tiberias 
on  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret.  In  his  reign  flourished 
John  the  Baptist  in  Perea,  and  also  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
in  Galilee,  of  whom  we  shall  have  much  to  say.  As 
this  term,  Baptist,  was  applied  to  the  Essenes  because 


80  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

of  their  frequent  ablutions,  as  already  suggested,  John 
may  have  been  the  leader  of  that  party. 

We  know  that  John  preached  in  the  wilderness  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Jordan,  the  centre  of  the  Es- 
senes.  His  bold  words,  in  which  he  denounced  the 
king,  led  to  his  imprisonment,  on  political  grounds,  as 
an  agitator.  His  influence  on  the  people  was  feared 
by  Rome,  for  it  was  hard  then  to  separate  religion  and 
politics.  It  is  sometimes  hard  now.  It  is  said  he  was 
finally  put  to  death  at  the  wish  of  Herodias,  a  wanton 
woman,  to  marry  whom  Antipas  had  divorced  his  wife, 
the  daughter  of  an  Arabian  king.  This  not  only  in- 
volved him  in  a  disastrous  war,  but  Herodias  caused 
him  eventually  the  loss  of  his  government  and  his  free- 
dom. For  at  her  investigation,  aiming  at  a  kingship, 
he  was  banished,  and  his  tetrarchy  given  to  Agrippa, 
of  whom  we  shall  hear  later  on. 

To  come  now  to  Judea  proper  which,  together  with 
Samaria  and  Idumea,  was  entrusted  to  the  unfit 
ARCHELAUS;  like  his  father  he,  too,  had  to  secure 
his  throne  through  bloodshed.  Plots  and  counterplots 
with  the  appearance  of  pretenders  for  the  thrones  of 
Judea  and  Galilee,  characterized  this  unhappy  time. 
The  Jews  were  disgusted  with  the  rule  of  Rome  and 
its  creatures,  and  some  began  open  rebellion.  Varus, 
the  Syrian  governor,  finally  quelled  the  revolt,  but 
thousands  were  slain.  Had  the  Jewish  malcontents 
been  organized  under  trustworthy  leadership,  some- 
thing might  have  been  achieved.  As  it  was,  it  ended 
in  their  complete  subjection. 

There  is  little  else  to  tell  of  the  reign  of  Archelaus. 


HEROD'S  SUCCESSORS.  81 

Serious  charges  were  brought  against  this  tyrant,  so 
serious  that  the  emperor  recalled  him  to  Rome  and 
deposed  him.  He  had  reigned  ten  years,  4  B.  C.  to 
6  A.  C.,  thus  crossing  the  dividing  line  of  what  is 
called  the  Christian  Era,  from  the  tradition  that  it 
marked  the  birth  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  who  is  regarded 
as  its  founder.  Jesus  was  actually  born  four  years 
earlier  than  this  date. 

Herod  had  brought  Judea  so  completely  under 
Roman  control,  that  bit  by  bit  all  the  old  vested  rights, 
privileges  and  local  powers  had  been  taken  from  its 
Sanhedrin,  its  High  Priest  and  its  royal  family.  Herod 
had  practically  sold  Judea  to  Rome  for  the  privilege 
of  subserving  as  its  king.  So  that  its  fate  was  now 
wholly  in  Rome's  hands. 

Leaving  the  outlying  provinces  under  the  rule  of 
Tetrarchs,  Rome  now  decided  to  govern  Judea  ab- 
solutely as  a  Roman  province,  or,  rather,  to  make  it 
part  of  the  province  of  Syria:  i.  e.,  it  sent  out  gov- 
ernors or,  as  they  were  called,  PROCURATORS,  to 
administer  its  affairs  under  the  more  immediate  direc- 
tion of  Syria.  The  Jews  were  now  to  be  ruled  by 
strangers  who  had  no  understanding  of  their  religion 
and  no  sympathy  with  their  traditions  or  social  needs; 
by  men  possessed,  in  fact,  for  the  most  part,  of  an  ill- 
concealed  antagonism  to  the  peculiar  rites  and  obliga- 
tions that  entered  into  the  lives  of  conscientious  Jews. 

At  its  best  Judea  had  been  a  Theocracy,  i.  e.,  a  king- 
dom in  which  religion,  represented  by  the  priesthood 
and  the  Sanhedrin,  moulded  the  thoughts  and  directed 
the  affairs  of  the  nation.  Roman  rule,  therefore,  would 


82  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

be  revolutionary,  even  had  the  procurators  been  good 
men  and  had  sought  to  administer  the  province  in 
kindness  and  equity.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  were 
nearly  all  tyrants,  lustful  for  gain  at  any  price  and 
absolutely  indifferent  to  the  welfare  of  the  people  un- 
der their  charge ;  even  as  we  shall  see,  in  many  instances 
wantonly  wounding  Judea's  sensibilities  to  gratify 
their  cruel  pleasure.  No  wonder  the  Jews  were  event- 
ually goaded  into  a  war  of  desperation. 

As  to  the  Jews  in  other  lands  under  Roman  sway, 
we  find  Augustus  Caesar  well  disposed  to  them.  He 
placed  the  harbors  of  the  Nile  under  Judean  Alabarchs 
(same  as  Arabarch) .  His  kindness  to  the  Alexandrian 
Jews  was  in  marked  contrast  with  his  severity  toward 
the  Greek  Alexandrians.  In  the  city  of  Rome  he  al- 
lowed the  Jewish  settlers — Libertini — to  observe  their 
religion  undisturbed,  and  to  build  synagogues. 

So  in  the  deepening  shadows  this  was  a  glimmer  of 
light  too. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

For  the  relation  of  Baptism  to  the  Essenes,  read 
articles  on  those  topics  in  Vols,  II  and  V,  respectively. 
of  the  Jewish  Encyclopedia. 


BOOK    III 

JUDEA  UNDER  ROME 


JUDEA  UNDER  PROCURATORS  83 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
JUDEA  UNDER  PROCURATORS. 

PROCURATORS  ROMAN  EMPERORS  >, 

A.C.E. 

Coponius 6  Augustus 

Marcus  Ambivius 9 

AnniusHufus 12 

Valerius  Gratus 15  Tiberius 

Pontius  Pilatus 26  " 

Marcellus 36  Caligula 

Marullus 37-41  Claudius 

The  Procurators  fall  into  two  groups  with  a  Jewish 
appointee  intervening.  The  table  above  is  the  first  group 
of  these  administrators  of  Judea.  Their  seat  of  gov- 
ernment was  Caesaria,  Jerusalem's  rival.  The  Jews 
had  nominally  a  certain  freedom  under  this  regime. 
"The  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Roman  emperor  was 
more  an  oath  of  confederates  than  of  subjects."  The 
Sanhedrin  was  still  supposed  to  be  the  governing  body 
for  home  affairs  with  the  High  Priest  as  its  president. 
But  the  arbitrary  appointment  and  removal  of  High 
Priests  by  the  procurator  placed  these  powers  at  the 
mercy  of  his  caprice,  and  ultimately  the  Jews  were 
robbed  of  these  prerogatives  altogether.  The  pro- 
curator then  could  always  interfere  with  the  carrying 
out  of  Jewish  law.  It  is  important  that  these  facts 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  for  even  in  religious  offenses 
where  the  High  Priest  with  the  Sanhedrin  could  pro- 
nounce the  death  sentence,  the  confirmation  of  the  pro- 
curator was  required  for  the  execution.  So  heavily 
were  the  people  taxed  that  the  tax-gatherers  (Pub- 
licans) were  looked  upon  with  opprobrium.  Doubt- 
less many  of  them  dishonestly  abused  their  power. 


84  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Still  Judea  was  the  only  province  in  which  the 
worship  of  the  emperor  was  not  compulsory.  The 
reason  is  obvious.  To  pagan  communities  it  was  an 
indifferent  demand,  to  the  monotheistic  Jews  it  was 
simply  impossible.  It  was  attempted  by  Caligula,  but 
failed.  Even  the  local  coinage  bore  no  figure,  nor 
were  the  standards  bearing  the  likeness  of  the  emperor 
tolerated,  as  such  was  regarded  as  an  offense  by  the 
strict  interpreters  of  the  Second  Commandment.  Even 
the  tyrant  Pilate  could  not  force  these  banners  on 
Judea.  They  violently  opposed  a  census  in  the  year  7 
both  on  religious  and!  on  political  grounds,  as  they 
regarded  it  as  an  infringement  of  their  sacred  rights 
and  the  precursor  of  slavery.  But  Joezer,  the  High 
Priest,  quieted  them  and  induced  them  to  submit. 

Still,  from  such  incidents  the  stern  determination 
of  the  Jews  may  be  inferred.  Judas  of  Gamala,  in 
Gaulanitus,  a  Galilean,  and  a  religious  enthusiast,  went 
about  preaching  the  duty  of  rebellion  and  the  sin  of 
submission.  Gradually  these  malcontents  formed 
themselves  into  a  new  party  of  extremists — the 
ZEALOTS,  who  believed  in  using  the  sword  against  the 
heathen  to  hasten  the  Messianic  realization.  They  al- 
ready began  nursing  the  smouldering  embers  of  rebel- 
lion. 

So  far  in  general.  Now  to  speak  of  the  rule  of  the 
procurators  a  little  more  in  detail. 

Passing  over  the  earlier  governors  of  whom  we  are 
told  little,  we  may  come  at  once  to  Pontius  Pilate, 
whose  regime  was  eventful  in  many  ways.  More  de- 
tailed accounts,  both  in  the  Jewish  historian,  Josephus, 


JUDEA   UNDER   PROCURATORS.  85 

and  in  the  Jewish  philosopher,  Philo,  are  given  of  his 
regime.  From  the  trustworthy  Philo  we  are  told 
that  he  was  of  "an  unbending  and  recklessly  hard 
character."  "He  has  been  charged  with  corruptibility, 
violence,  robberies,  ill-treatment  of  the  people,  con- 
tinued executions  without  even  the  form  of  trial,  end- 
less and  intolerable  cruelties."  He  wounded  Jewish 
sensibilities  in  allowing  the  Roman  soldiers  to  carry 
a  flag  with  the  emperor's  likeness,  on  his  very  first 
entry  into  Jerusalem. 

For  five  days  they  stood  outside  his  palace  petition- 
ing its  removal.  When  the  soldiers  with  drawn  swords 
stood  ready  to  slay  at  his  signal,  the  people  bared  their 
necks,  preferring  death  to  toleration  of  this  idolatrous 
emblem.  Such  was  the  religious  intensity  of  the  Jews 
of  these  last  years  of  their  national  life,  such  was  the 
stuff  of  which  they  were  made.  Even  tyrants  reach 
limits  beyond  which  they  dare  not  pass.  The  emblem 
was  sullenly  withdrawn. 

At  another  time  he  appropriated  the  Temple  treas- 
ures, sacredly  set  aside  for  religious  purposes,  for  the 
building  of  an  aqueduct  .to  Jerusalem.  This  time  he 
resorted  to  violence  to  quell  the  opposition,  many  lives 
being  sacrificed. 

With  the  purpose  only  of  annoying  the  people,  he 
put  up  votive  shields  inscribed  with  the  emperor's 
name.  But  they  appealed  to  Tiberius  who  not  only 
ordered  them  removed,  but  rebuked  Pilate  at  the  same 
time. 

On  another  occasion  the  Samaritans,  to  whom  Ger- 
izim  had  all  the  sanctity  that  Sinai  had  for  Judea, 
because  the  Blessings  were  announced  from  its  heights 


86  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

(see  Joshua,  viii — 33,  and  Deut,  xi — 29),  gathered 
there  on  a  rumor  that  sacred  vessels  were  hidden  in 
its  soil.  Pilate  sent  soldiers  to  wantonly  slaughter 
them.  This  led  to  his  recall  by  Tiberius. 

The  Emperor  Tiberius  decided  that  it  was  kinder  to 
the  Jews  to  appoint  procurators  for  long  terms  than 
to  make  frequent  changes.  It  meant  the  greed  of  a 
smaller  number  to  be  satisfied.  But,  on  the  whole,  his 
attitude  was  less  friendly  than  that  of  his  predecessor, 
Augustus.  This  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that 
many  Romans  of  high  birth  had,  unsolicited,  accepted 
the  Jewish  faith,  and  had  sent  gifts  to  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem.  Among  these  converts  was  Fulvia,  wife 
of  a  Roman  senator.  This  led  to  the  banishment  from 
Rome  of  many  thousands  of  Jews  to  a  dangerous 
climate,  and  became  for  a  time  a  religious  persecution. 

The  incident,  however,  shows  that  the  worthier 
Romans  were  becoming  more  and  more  distrustful  of 
pagan  cults  and  were  looking  for  something  better. 
We  shall  see  later  how  zealous  Jews  from  Judea,  and 
more  particularly  from  Alexandria,  began  making  con- 
verts to  Judaism  all  through  Asia  Minor.  The  in- 
fluence of  these  converts  on  future  events  was  farther 
reaching  than  their  sponsors  ever  dreamed. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Theme  for  discussion :  Does  official  Judaism  dis- 
courage conversion? 

Why  did  the  Jews  oppose  a  census  on  religious 
grounds?  See  II.  Sam.  xxiv,  and  article  Census  in 
Jewish  Encyclopedia,  vol.  iii. 


JESUS   OF   NAZARETH  87 


CHAPTER  XV. 

JESUS  OF  NAZARETH. 

So  far  the  rule  of  Pontius  Pilate  as  it  concerned 
Judea.  But  his  rule  has  become  of  wide  import  be- 
cause of  his  relation  to  JESUS  OF  NAZARETH,  who  was 
put  to  death  during  his  administration,  though  born 
in  the  province  of  Galilee  governed  by  H.  Antipas. 
To  explain  how  a  great  religion  sprang  up  around 
this  Galilean  Jew,  which  came  afterwards  to  regard 
him  as  its  father,  can  be  explained  only  by  a  complete 
grasp  of  the  political  and  religious  aspirations  of  the 
time. 

(a)  The  ominous  mood  in  which  the  Jews  realized 
the  gradual  deprivation  of  their  country  and  their  in- 
dependence indicated  the  stirring  of  deep  forces  in 
their  nature.  Judea  was  to  them  a  Holy  Land,  for 
"from  Zion  had  gone  forth  the  Law."  Love  of  country 
had  become  part  of  their  religion.  Every  political 
function  had  its  religious  aspect.  The  Sanhedrin  was 
at  once  a  civil  and  a  religious  body,  and  this  dual  char- 
acteristic pervaded  all  the  civil  institutions.  So  the 
longing  for  the  restoration  of  the  royal  line  of  Judah, 
i.  e.,  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  expressed  the  religious 
as  well  as  the  political  hopes  of  the  nation.  Not  that 
the  word  Messiah  had  any  peculiarly  religious  signifi- 
cance. It  is  the  Hebrew  word  Mesheach,  meaning 
"Anointed  king,"  and  was  applied  in  the  Bible  to  Saul 
and  even  to  Cyrus,  the  Persian.  It  implied  in  post 


88  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

exilic  times  nothing  more  than  the  re-establishment  of 
the  throne  in  the  Davidic  line. 

Many  of  the  pious  felt  further  that  with  a  king  once 
more  on  an  independent  throne,  the  glorious  pictures 
of  the  coming  day  foretold  by  the  Prophets  and  not 
attained  in  the  first  monarchy,  would  be  realized  in  the 
second.  "The  Lord's  house  would  be  established  on  the 
top  of  the  mountains;  all  nations  would  flock  to  it, 
saying,  Come  let  us  go  up  to  the  house  of  the  Lord,  to 
the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob.  He  will  teach  us  His 
ways,  we  will  walk  in  His  paths."  (Isaiah  and  Micah.) 
Again,  "The  earth  would  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of 
God  as  the  waters  cover  the  sea."  The  conviction  ex- 
pressed by  Jeremiah  (Chap,  xxxi,  33-34)  would  be 
fulfilled,  that  all  would  "know  the  Lord  from  the  least 
of  them  to  the  greatest."  One  of  the  latest  of  the 
Prophets — Zechariah — had  foretold  a  day  when  "ten 
men  would  take  hold  of  the  garments  of  him  who  was 
a  Jew  and  would  say,  We  will  go  with  you,  for  we  be- 
lieve that  God  is  with  you."  So  we  might  quote  nearly 
every  prophet  from  Amos  to  Malachi,  the  last  prophet, 
who  said  that  the  day  of  judgment  would  be  heralded 
by  the  undying  Elijah.  A  Jewish  poet  in  Alexandria 
voiced  the  same  hope:  Heathendom  would  disappear 
and  the  kingdom  of  God  would  be  established. 

Alas,  the  outlook  for  either  the  spiritual  or  the  tem- 
poral realization  seemed  farther  removed  than  ever. 
Every  now  and  then,  more  particularly  under  the  dis- 
turbed regime  of  the  procurators,  a  deluded  enthusiast 
would  appear  upon  the  scene  and  claim  that  he  was  a 
Messiah.  So  desperate  were  the  times  that  these  agi- 
tators always  found  followers.  They  were  always  ruth- 


JESUS  OF  NAZARETH.  89 

lessly  put  to  death  by  Rome,  for  the  claim  of  Messiah- 
ship,  i.  e.,  "King  of  the  Jews,"  was  'treason  against 
Rome. 

(b)  In  a  previous  chapter  the  Essenes  have  been 
described — a  sect  that  lived  as  a  brotherhood  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  who  shared  all  goods  in  com- 
mon, condemned  wealth  and  passed  simple  lives  away 
from  the  great  world.  While  they  too  looked  for  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  they,  together  with  the  most 
saintly  among  the  rest  of  Israel,  laid  less  stress  upon 
the  political  aspect  of  the  coming  of  the  King  than  upon 
the  spiritual  implication.  Their  deeply  religious  long- 
ings, inspired  by  the  great  prophets,  were  directed,  not 
so  much  to  an  earthly  as  to  a  heavenly  kingdom. 

We  have  already  heard  of  John  the  Baptist  (Essene) , 
who  so  stirred  the  people  by  preaching  that  the  king- 
dom of  God  was  at  hand — the  Messianic  hope.  He 
evidently  inspired  one  youth,  who  may  have  been  of 
the  Essene  brotherhood,  Joshua  (Greek  Jesus)  from 
Nazareth,  in  Galilee.  Galilee,  like  the  other  provinces 
in  northern  Palestine,  was  away  from  the  learning  and 
culture  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  home  of  simple  folk 
who  spoke  a  corrupt  dialect,  and  who  credulously  ac- 
cepted the  widespread  superstition  that  every  disease 
came  from  an  in-dwelling  spirit  of  demon. 

Of  the  life  of  the  man  Jesus  who  came  from  these 
surroundings  little  is  really  known,  but  from  a  few 
bare  facts  very  much  had  been  deduced  and  still  more 
imagined.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  he  was  the  son 
of  a  carpenter — Joseph — we  only  hear  of  him  about 
two  years  before  his  death,  and  that  occurred  at  the 


90  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

early  age  of  thirty-two.  Yet  his  stirring  words  and 
daring  manner  deeply  impressed  those  about  him.  So 
that  his  admirers  formed  a  separate  sect  after  his 
death,  which  in  part  may  have  been  a  continuation  of 
the  old  Essenes,  but  which  eventually  became  a  differ- 
ent religion  with  Jesus  as  its  inspiration. 

Though  by  no  means  a  profound  scholar  in  the  Law, 
he  exhibited  fine  moral  perception  and  lived  up  to  the 
pure  ideals  of  the  strict,  peace-loving  Essene  brother- 
hood. In  his  teachings  or  rather  preachings,  he  fol- 
lowed in  the  footsteps  of  the  prophets  Amos,  Isaiah, 
Micah  and  Jeremiah,  laying  stress  upon  the  spirit  of 
religion  and  minimizing  the  value  of  ceremonial.  For 
there  were  formalists  in  those  days  as  there  were  in 
the  days  of  the  Exile.  Indeed,  every  age  reveals  the 
experience  of  the  multitude  laying  more  stress  upon 
the  ceremony  than  the  idea  it  is  intended  to  convey — 
giving  more  attention  to  the  outward,  tangible  form 
than  to  its  inward  spiritual  purpose,  the  exaltation  of 
life.  Nor  is  that  tendency  confined  to  the  ignorant 
either.  Religion  so  easily  sinks  into  a  mechanical 
routine  unless  we  keep  vigilant  watch.  This  lesson  is 
preached  by  the  moralists  of  every  age.  It  was  preached 
by  Jesus  of  Nazareth  with  rare  power. 

(c)  But  it  was  not  so  much  his  ethical  teaching, 
lofty  though  it  was,  that  brought  him  into  prominence 
and  caused  the  crowds  to  gather  about  him,  though  the 
rationalists  lay  stress  upon  that  now.  It  was  partly 
because  he  was  regarded  as  a  "healer,"  a  power  claimed 
by  the  Essenes;  but  chiefly  because  he  was  regarded  as 
the  long-looked-for  Messiah  who  would  deliver  Israel 


JESUS  OF  NAZARETH.  QI 

from  the  thraldom  of  Rome  and  gratify  their  wildest 
expectations.  Whether  he  first  of  his  own  accord  laid 
claim  to  this  mysterious  title,  or  whether  he  was  per- 
suaded into  it  by  his  admirers,  we  cannot  gather  from 
the  few  records  that  tell  the  events  of  his  life.  For 
even  these,  the  Synoptic  Gospels  (Matthew,  Mark  and 
Luke)  were  written  long  after  his  death  at  a  time  when 
startling  opinions  had  already  been  formed  about  him ; 
and  they  do  not  quite  agree.  In  fact,  once  regarded 
as  the  Messiah,  his  life  was  recast  to  fit  the  Messianic 
prophecies  in  the  Scriptures!  This  made  the  Jesus  of 
the  Gospel  largely  a  mythical  character. 

Jesus  could  quite  honestly  have  believed  himself  to 
be  a  Messiah  in  the  religious  sense,  though  he  was 
rather  evasive  when  bluntly  questioned.  For  many 
sincere  enthusiasts  both  before  and  since  his  time  have 
believed  themselves  specially  chosen  messengers  of 
God  to  bring  redemption  to  their  people.  Mohammed, 
who  flourished  several  centuries  later,  believed  him- 
self to  have  been  sent  by  God  to  bring  salvation  to  the 
Arabians.  And  in  a  sense  he  was;  to  call  him  an  im- 
postor is  uncharitable  and  untrue.  In  Israel's  history, 
since  the  days  of  the  procurators  not  a  century  has 
passed  but  some  one  has  come  forward  claiming  to  be 
the  Messiah.  Some  were  honest,  though  mistaken; 
some  were  mere  adventurers. 

Jesus  accepted  the  Essene  idea  of  the  Messiah,  that 
is,  he  was  less  concerned  with  ushering  in  an  earthly 
than  a  heavenly  kingdom.  He  was  spurred  on  by  the 
religious  rather  than  by  the  political  expectations  of 
the  Messiah's  advent. 

This  distinction  was  not  clearly  realized  by  the  sim- 


92  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

pie  masses  of  the  people,  groaning  under  a  hated  yoke; 
certainly  it  was  not  realized  by  the  Romans,  who  saw  in 
every  Messianic  claim  treason  against  Rome,  a  plot  to 
win  independence  for  Judea  again.  On  the  other  hand, 
Jesus  applying  to  himself  on  one  occasion  the  term  "Son 
of  God" — that  may  mean  so  little  or  so  much — awak- 
ened the  alarm  and  antagonism  of  the  priesthood  and 
lost  for  him  many  supporters.  So  Jesus,  who  was  prob- 
ably innocent  of  any  blasphemous  assumptions  against 
Judaism  and  guiltless  of  any  conspiracy  against  Rome 
to  seize  the  throne  and  be  made  "King  of  the  Jews," 
was  nevertheless  condemned  to  death  like  the  Messiahs 
before  him  and  was  executed  by  the  Roman  method  of 
capital  punishment — crucifixion.  But  unlike  the  Mes- 
siahs before  him — all  mediocre  men — his  name  has 
been  treasured  ever  since  as  one  of  the  great  religious 
teachers  of  the  world. 

(d)  For  although  he  died  without  bringing  the  re- 
demption which  would  have  proven  his  Messiahship, 
his  followers  did  not  lose  faith  in  him.  His  turning 
kindly  to  the  poor  and  despised  folk,  even  the  sinful  and 
degraded,  to  preach  his  lessons,  had  won  all  hearts.  As 
they  had  believed  he  had  performed  miracles  in  his  life- 
time, so  now  they  tried  to  persuade  themselves  that  a 
greater  miracle  had  been  fulfilled  in  his  death — that  he 
had  not  really  died,  but  had  been  translated  to  heaven 
like  Elijah  and  that  he  would  return  some  day  and  com- 
plete his  unfinished  work.  In  those  unlettered  days  be- 
lief in  the  supernatural  was  very  common.  Among  cer- 
tain folk  it  is  not  so  uncommon  in  our  day. 

So  these  believers  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah  became 
a  new  sect  called  Christians.  What  does  Christian 


JESUS  OF  NAZARETH.  95 

mean?  Christ  (Christos)  is  the  Greek  for  Messiah. 
So  the  name  Christians  meant  Messiahans,  and  the 
name  Jesus  Christ  meant  Jesus  the  Messiah.  Though 
Jesus  himself  did  not  speak  Greek,  but  Aramaic,  the 
earlier  Christian  Scriptures  were  written  in  that  tongue. 

The  Jewish  Christians  continued  to  live  much  as  vhe 
Essenes  before  them,  like  them  assuming  voluntary 
poverty  and  faithful  as  of  old  to  Jewish  Law.  But  in 
later  years  when  many  pagans  joined  this  sect,  they  in- 
troduced into  it  many  idolatrous  notions,  borrowed 
from  the  cults  of  Greece,  Rome  and  Egypt.  The  man 
Jesus  was  exalted  into  a  divinity  and  worshiped  as  such. 
The  shedding  of  his  blood  at  his  execution  was  regarded 
as  a  sacrifice  intended  by  God  to  atone  for  the  sins  of 
mankind,  based  on  the  ancient  idea  that  the  priest  shed 
the  blood  of  an  animal  in  atoning  for  the  sins  of  the 
people;  but  the  Hebrew  prophets  and  some  of  the 
psalmists  had  all  condemned  animal  sacrifice  as  a  means 
of  atonement ;  it  was  a  stage  of  religion  beyond  which 
the  Jews  were  advancing  and  ceased  altogether  in  the 
year  '70.  The  next  step  which  separated  the  Jews  from 
the  Christians  was  the  abrogation  of  the  Jewish  Law. 
This  was  brought  about  by  a  later  teacher,  Paul. 

The  process  by  which  this  Jewish  sect  became  a  new 
religion,  most  of  whose  adherents  came  from  the  heath- 
en world,  was  slow  and  gradual.  We  shall  refer  to  the 
different  steps  in  the  development  of  this  Faith  as  they 
occur,  and  we  shall  see  how  this  sect  born  in  Judaism 
became  its  antagonist  and  its  most  bitter  persecutor  in 
later  days. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Read  the  article,  "Christianity"  in  Jewish  Encyclo- 
pedia, Vol.  iv,  by  Dr.  K.  Kohler. 


94  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

The  reasons  there  given  why  the  death  of  Jesus 
should  not  be  attributed  to  the  Jews,  may  be  summar- 
ized as  follows : 

Crucifixion  was  not  a  Jewish,  but  a  Roman  method 
of  capital  punishment. 

During  the  period  of  unrest,  prior  to  the  open  rebel- 
lion against  Rome,  30-66  c.  E.,  many  Jews  were  cru- 
cified as  rebels,  and  on  very  meagre  evidence. 

"The  mode  and  manner  of  Jesus'  death  undoubtedly 
point  to  Roman  custom  and  law  as  the  directive  power," 
though  Jews  may  have  administered  a  soothing  cup  to 
lessen  the  suffering. 

None  of  the  well  established  measures  of  precaution 
were  taken  that  always  preceded  a  Jewish  execution.  It 
is  very  doubtful  whether  Jewish  law  would  tolerate  a 
three- fold  execution  at  one  time. 

A  Jewish  execution  on  Friday  is  almost  impossible. 
If  he  died  on  Nissan  14,  the  execution  on  the  eve  of  a 
festival  would  be  irregular.  If  on  Nissan  15  (Pass- 
over), the  execution  could  not  be  held.  (Bodies  of  de- 
linquents were  not  buried  in  private  sepulchres. )  Penal 
jurisdiction  had  been  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
Sanhedrin.  There  is  no  corroboration  of  the  custom  to 
liberate  a  condemned  person  on  account  of  a  holiday. 
Rome  had  crucified  many  other  Jewish  claimants  for 
Messiahship,  who  were  "rebels"  in  its  eyes,  as  Messiah 
meant  practically,  "King  of  the  Jews."  This  was  the 
inscription  on  the  cross  of  Jesus. 

Many  of  the  accompanying  incidents  are  mere  apo- 
calyptic embellishments. 

Read  As  Others  Saw  Him,  Joseph  Jacobs;  Macmil- 
lan. 

Jesus  of  Nazareth,  Schlesinger.  Albany. 

Cradle  of  the  Christ,  Frothingham.    Putnams. 

Matthew,  Mark  and  Luke  are  called  Synoptic  Gosl- 
ples  is  distinct  from  the  Gospel  of  John,  a  later  and  more 
doctrinal  work. 


A  JEWISH   KING   ONCE   MORE  95 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

A  JEWISH  KING  ONCE  MORE. 

In  contrast  with  the  behavior  of  Pilate  was  the  con- 
sideration shown  for  Jewish  sensibilities  by  the  Syrian 
governor,  Vitellius,  to  whom  the  procurators  were  sub- 
ject. He  was  the  best  Roman  governor  Judea  ever  had. 
He  exhibited  an  uncommon  forbearance  by  remitting 
some  burdensome  taxes;  he  sympathetically  inquired 
into  the  needs  of  the  people  and  removed  the  unworthy 
Caiaphas  from  the  High  Priesthood. 

In  speaking  of  the  immediate  overseers,  we  must  not 
forget  the  relation  of  the  Jews  to  the  highest  author- 
ity— the  Roman  emperor.  Some  of  these  gave  no 
thought  to  them  apart  from  appointing  their  governors 
or  procurators.  With  others  the  Jews  came  in  clashing 
contact.  Such  was  the  case  with  Caligula,  who  donned 
the  purple  in  37.  This  demented  man  believed  himself 
to  be  a  divinity,  so  that  obeisance  to  his  image  was  not 
merely  an  act  of  allegiance,  but  of  worship.  The  conse- 
quences of  this  sacrilegious  command  was  first  felt  by 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria;  for  the  Ptolmaic  and  the 
Seleucid  empires  were  both  Roman  now.  An  actual 
persecution  here  took  place  in  which  the  Jews  were  be- 
sieged in  their  own  quarter,  the  Delta.  For  their  re- 
fusal to  obey  the  emperor's  childish  demand  gave  ex- 
cuse to  their  tormentors  to  attack  them  under  the  guise 
of  patriotism.  Patriotism  may  be  the  mantle  for  so 
many  sins.  Synagogues  were  defiled  and  many  persons 
were  slain.  Philo,  a  great  Jewish  philosopher,  went  to 
Rome  to  intercede  for  his  brethren,  but  in  vain. 


g6  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

To  Judea  likewise  came  the  same  blasphemous  de- 
mand with  the  threat  of  similar  punishment.  At  last 
the  mad  monarch  ordered  his  image  to  be  set  up  in  the 
Temple  and  entrusted  the  task  to  the  Syrian  governor, 
Petronius,  a  man  of  the  stamp  of  Vitellius.  He  did  his 
best  to  delay  the  wanton  edict  at  the  risk  of  the  em- 
peror's displeasure.  At  last,  yielding  to  the  agonized 
entreaty  of  the  people,  he  perilled  is  life  by  asking  the 
emperor  to  revoke  the  order.  Agrippa,  a  Jewish  fav- 
orite of  Caligula,  succeeded  in  persuading  the  emperor 
to  renounce  the  abortive  project.  Soon,  however,  he 
repented  and  determined  on  its  execution.  But  relief 
came  to  Alexandria  and  Judea  at  one  stroke — the  em- 
peror was  murdered  in  41. 

The  next  emperor,  Claudius,  restored  to  the  Alex- 
andian  Jews  all  the  privileges  that  had  been  taken 
from  them  during  the  rule  of  his  predecessor,  and  their 
rights  were  more  firmly  established  than  before.  In 
fact,  religious  freedom  was  now  granted  to  the  Jews 
throughout  the  whole  Roman  empire.  But  best  of  all, 
he  stopped  the  regime  of  the  procurators  by  appointing 
a  king  of  Judea,  one  of  their  own  brethren — AGRIPPA. 

Agrippa  was  the  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
Mariamne,  thus  having  both  Idumean  and  Hasmonean 
blood  in  his  veins.  As  a  child  he  was  sent  for  his  edu- 
cation to  Rome.  The  influences  of  Rome  were  not 
healthy.  They  made  the  lad  luxurious  and  extrava- 
gant. Loaded  with  debts  he  returned  to  Judea  and  was 
assisted  by  his  brother-in-law,  Antipas.  After  varied 
fortunes  he  came  again  to  Rome,  befriended  by  the  Ah- 
barch,  Alexander.  Tiberius,  emperor  at  that  time,  re- 
ceived him  favorably  and  gave  him  charge  of  his  grand- 


A  JEWISH  KING  ONCE  MORE.  97 

son.  But  still  his  extravagant  habits  continued,  and 
an  incautious  word  sent  him  to  prison,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  emperor  died  in  37. 

The  new  emperor,  Caligula,  who  was  mad  enough 
to  think  himself  a  divinity,  was  also  sane  enough  to 
make  Agrippa  his  friend.  So  now  his  fortunes  began 
to  rise.  On  the  death  of  Philip  and  on  the  deposition 
of  Herod  Antipas,  their  Palestinian  provinces  were 
bestowed  on  him  as  king.  Honored  with  the  title  of 
Praetor,  his  iron  chain  was  exchanged  for  one  of  gold. 
So,  like  Joseph,  he  was  transferred  from  a  prison  to  a 
throne.  While  still  in  Rome,  he  succeeded  in  dissuad- 
ing the  emperor  from  putting  his  statue  in  the  Jerusa- 
lem Temple.  At  Caligula's  death  he  assisted  Claudius 
in  obtaining  the  imperial  throne.  In  grateful  recogni- 
tion Judea  and  Sanaria  were  added  to  Agrippa's  do- 
minions. 

His  kingdom,  uniting  the  various  tetrachies  of  Her- 
od's three  sons,  was  now  even  vaster  in  area  than  that 
of  his  grandfather,  Herod.  But  he  was  a  very  differ- 
ent type  of  man.  In  spite  of  his  Roman  associations, 
he  possessed  strong  Jewish  sentiment  and  decided  to 
become  the  father  instead  of  the  tyrant  of  his  people. 

The  wild  habits  of  his  youth  he  laid  aside  and  he 
hung  up  in  the  Temple  the  golden  chain  that  replaced 
his  prison  fetters,  as  a  mark  of  thankfulness  and  hu- 
mility. His  rule  was  a  golden  age  for  Judea — all  too 
brief.  Though  partly  of  alien  blood,  the  Pharisees 
said  on  one  occasion,  "Thou  art  our  brother,  Agrippa." 
He  was  amiable  and  benevolent  and  grateful,  and 
showed  a  forgiving  disposition.  His  magnanimity 
changed  opponents  into  friends. 


98  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

He  entered  with  hearty  enthusiasm  into  all  the  cere- 
monial of  Judaism.  The  Mishna  speaks  of  him  in 
high  praise  and  tells  how  he  carried  the  first  fruit  offer- 
ing to  the  Temple  with  his  own  hand.  He  looked  after 
the  interests  of  Jews  and  Judaism  at  home  and  abroad. 
He  removed  some  statues  that  had  been  wantonly  put 
in  a  Phoenician  synagogue.  Still,  outside  of  Judea 
he  permitted  the  amphitheatre  with  gladiatorial  com- 
bats, and  bestowed  gifts  upon  many  Grecian  cities  and 
upon  some  heathen  towns  of  Palestine. 

The  Sanhedrin  was  invested  by  him  with  new  power 
and  dignity,  and  under  the  wise  presidency  of  Rabbi 
Gamaliel,  hazaken  (the  elder),  a  descendant  of  Hillel, 
many  liberal  laws  were  made.  The  same  consideration 
was  shown  to  heathen  as  to  Jewish  poor.  So  esteemed 
was  Gamaliel  that  the  saying  arose,  "When  Rabbi 
Gamaliel  died,  the  glory  of  the  Torah  passed  away." 
One  of  his  teachings  ran :  "Procure  thyself  an  in- 
structor; avoid  the  possibility  of  doubt;  and  do  not 
tithe  by  conjecture." 

Agrippa  would  fain  have  furthered  the-  hopes  of 
Israel  in  making  them  more  independent  of  Rome,  but 
he  was  watched  by  envious  eyes.  A  conference  of 
local  vassal  kings,  called  by  him,  was  broken  up  by  the 
suspicious  Syrian  governor.  He  wished  to  strengthen 
Judea's  fortifications,  but  again  the  Syrian  governor 
induced  the  emperor  to  stop  the  work.  In  fact,  many 
jealous  Romans  feared  that  a  longer  continuance  of 
his  kingdom  might  develop  it  into  a  menace  against 
Rome.  So  the  assassin's  knife  was  called  into  play. 
Suddenly  at  a  moment  of  triumphal  glory,  he  was 
stricken  down  at  the  early  age  of  forty-five.  The  kind- 


A  JEWISH  KING  ONCE  MORE.  99 

ly  disposed  emperor  would  have  given  the  kingdom  to 
his  son,  but  was  dissuaded  by  his  counselors.  The 
old  regime  of  the  hated  procurators  was  restored  once 
more. 

It  is  true  this  son,  called  Agrippa  II.  was  given  a 
small  dominion,  but  with  little  independent  power.  He 
was  also  entrusted  with  the  superintendence  of  the 
Temple  which  he  did  not  always  exercise  wisely.  He 
was  well-disposed  to  the  Jews,  to  whom  he  hardly  be- 
longed and  even  used  his  influence  at  court  to  inter- 
cede in  their  favor.  He  imported  wood  for  the  Tem- 
ple use  and  employed  the  discharged  workmen  of  the 
finished  Herodian  Temple  to  pave  the  city  with  mar- 
ble. He  did  all  he  could  in  his  impotent  way  to  pre- 
vent hostilities  between  Rome  and  Judea,  but  his  train- 
ing had  been  Roman  and  his  spirit  was  pagan.  His 
was  a  weak  nature  entirely  under  the  control  of  his 
sister  Berenice,  a  woman  of  questionable  reputation 
and  later  a  favorite  of  the  Roman  emperor  Titus,  who 
played  so  large  a  part  in  Judea's  last  days. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Agrippa  II.  continued  to  hold  his  petty  kingdom 
for  some  time  after  Judea  had  fallen,  and  lived  to  read 
Josephus'  history  about  it.  He  was  the  Agrippa  before 
whom  Paul  appeared,  and  to  whom  he  said,  "With 
little  wouldst  thou  win  me  over  to  be  a  Christian." 


IOO          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL. 

Before  taking  up  the  continuation  of  the  story  of 
Judea  under  the  procurators — pleasingly  interrupted 
by  the  reign  of  Agrippa — let  us  take  another  survey 
of  Jews  and  Judaism  in  lands  outside  of  Palestine.  The 
voluntary  dispersion  still  went  on.  The  Jews  were  now 
scattered  over  all  the  Roman  Empire,  which  included 
Asiatic  and  European  lands  from  Syria  to  Spain.  We 
find  our  ancestors  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era 
in  Arabia  and  in  Parthia,  an  Asiatic  kingdom  south  of 
The  Caspian.  But,  however  widely  scattered,  religion 
was  the  bond  of  union  and  Jerusalem  the  spiritual 
centre.  From  distant  lands  many  would  from  time  to 
time  make  pilgrimages  to  the  Temple. 

The  attitude  of  the  heathen  world  was  on  the  whole 
not  friendly  to  the  Jews.  They  were  disliked  for  their 
aloofness,  their  stern  morality,  their  sobriety,  and  their 
material  success ;  while  their  exclusiveness — partly  but 
not  wholly  justifiable — led  to  the  erroneous  supposition 
that  they  were  inimical  to  mankind.  But  the  Jews  of 
the  Diaspora  were  less  exclusive  and  more  tolerant 
than  those  of  Judea.  This  was  particularly  true  of 
Alexandria.  There  existed  here — apart  from  occa- 
sional outbursts  of  racial  antagonism  among  the  pop- 
ulace, a  cordial  interchange  of  ideas  in  which  the  Jews 
met  the  Greeks  more  than  half  way. 

They  admired  the  culture  of  the  educated  Greeks 
and  felt  drawn  toward  the  lofty  philosophy  of  Plato. 
The  broadening  effect  of  this  infusion  of  Greek 


THE  ALEXANDRIAN   SCHOOL.  IOI 

thought,  gave  to  Judaism  in  Alexandria  a  distinct  char- 
acter, and  it  came  to  be  known  as  Hellenistic  Judaism 
(Hellas,  Greece),  and  its  espousers,  Hellenistic  Jews. 
We  have  used  the  term  Hellenist  in  an  earlier  chapter, 
in  a  bad  sense  as  descriptive  of  Jews  who  yielded  to 
those  Greek  influences  that  were  pagan  to  the  detri- 
ment of  Judaism.  Here  we  apply  the  term  in  a  good 
sense  to  those  who  were  open  to  Greek  influences  that 
were  intellectual,  to  the  advantage  of  Judaism.  We 
have  already  marked  the  effect  of  Greek  thought  in 
some  of  the  Apocryphal  writings,  particularly  in  the 
"Wisdom  of  Solomon."  Appreciating  the  metaphysics 
of  the  Greek  philosophers,  they  were  anxious  to  bring 
home  to  the  Greeks  the  spiritual  and  moral  truths  of 
Judaism. 

But  how  to  present  the  revelation  of  the  Law  and  of 
the  Prophets  with  an  authority  that  would  win  the  con- 
viction of  the  Greeks?  In  their  fervor  to  make  prose- 
lytes to  the  Law  of  Moses,  they  resorted  to  a  strange 
expedient.  There  existed  among  the  Greeks  prophet- 
esses called  Sybils,  who  were  supposed  to  foretell  in 
mysterious  oracles  the  destinies  of  nations.  So  some 
Jewish  writers  cast  the  Bible  teachings  of  God  and 
morality  in  the  form  of  Sybilline  oracles.  Like  the  Bible 
prophets,  these  Jewish  Sybilline  writers,  warned  those 
who  followed  false  views  and  bad  lives  and  promised 
salvation  to  those  who  accepted  the  law  of  the  God  of 
Israel.  Doubtless  these  writings  exerted  a  salutary  in- 
fluence on  many  Greeks. 

The  Hellenists  went  so  far  as  to  try  to  prove  from 
Jewish  Scriptures  many  of  the  loftier  ideas  of  Greek 
philosophy.  In  this  way  Judaism  was  represented  as 


IO2         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

anticipating  the  highest  knowledge  of  the  time.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  this  reconciliation  of  Judaism 
and  Greek  philosophy  was  occasionally  forced.  The 
attempt  was  also  made  to  explain  every  law  allegori- 
cally,  as  though  intended  to  convey  ideas  other  than 
those  that  appeared  on  the  surface.  Thus  they  read 
their  philosophy  into  the  Bible  as  the  later  Greeks  read 
theirs  into  the  Iliad.  Indeed  the  habit  of  reading  the 
science  of  the  day  into  the  old  Bible  books  still  pre- 
vails. This  poetic  explaining  away  of  many  injunc- 
tions of  Scripture  led  in  some  instances  to  their  actual 
neglect.  The  complete  abrogation  of  the  Law  by  the 
Christians  in  the  second  stage  of  their  development, 
under  the  leadership  of  Paul  of  Tarsus,  received  its  de- 
fense from  this  tendency  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews. 

The  statement  is  often  made  that  Jews  discourage 
proselytes.  It  is  certainly  not  true  of  the  Alexandrian 
Jews  who  were  most  zealous  in  their  missionary  ef- 
forts. The  translation  of  their  Scriptures  into  Greek, 
the  presentation  of  the  message  of  their  faith  in  the 
form  of  Sybilline  oracles,  and  the  allegorizing  away 
of  many  of  their  ceremonials  were  all  different  means 
employed  for  the  bringing  of  Judaism  to  the  Gentile. 
Just  when  the  Jewish  State  was  dying,  many  heathens 
were  seeking  this  Faith  of  their  own  accord,  attracted 
by  its  ethics  and  repelled  by  heathen  uncleanliness. 
Philo  says  that  the  adoption  of  Judaism  by  many 
heathens  immediately  resulted  in  a  marked  moral  im- 
provement in  their  lives.  The  number  of  female  prose- 
lytes in  Damascus  and  Asia  Minor  steadily  grew.  A 
zealous  Jewish  missionary  converted  Helen,  the  queen 
of  Adrabene,  a  province  on  the  Tigris,  and  all  her 


THE  ALEXANDRIAN   SCHOOL.  1 03 

family.  She  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  sent 
valuable  gifts  to  the  Temple,  and  helped  the  people  in 
time  of  famine. 

So,  although  Judaism  was  a  faith  that  imposed  on 
its  followers  severe  restraints  and,  although  the  Jews 
were  a  very  small  people,  whom  some  heathens  de- 
spised— still,  many  more  knocked  at  its  doors  to  be 
admitted  into  the  fold,  even  for  fifty  years  after  its 
Temple  was  destroyed  and  its  nationality  overthrown 
— tragedies  which  we  shall  presently  have  to  tell. 
Yes,  many  of  the  very  people  that  overthrew  it — the 
Romans — accepted  the  Jewish  faith.  Josephus  tells  us 
how  enthusiastically  these  converts  observed  the  Sab- 
bath, the  Festivals,  and  the  dietary  laws.  The  Em- 
peror Domitian  made  severe  laws  against  proselytes  to 
Judaism,  in  order  to  discourage  the  practice.  Indeed, 
a  cousin  of  the  emperor,  who  was  also  a  senator  and 
consul,  accepted  Judaism  together  with  his  wife.  So 
near  was  our  faith  being  installed  on  the  throne  of  the 
Roman  Empire! 

But  ultimately  the  stream  of  converts  was  diverted 
to  the  new  faith,  born  of  Judaism,  Christianity — more 
particularly  as  in  its  second  stage  it  sent  its  mission- 
aries to  the  heathen  world  and  told  them  that  accept- 
ance of  Jesus  as  saviour  and  divinity  would  bring  them 
salvation  without  conforming  to  the  burdensome  Jew- 
ish Law;  that  the  advent  of  Jesus  abrogated  the  Law, 
became  a  doctrine  of  the  new  religion.  This  Chris- 
tianity on  easy  terms  brought  thousands  to  the  fold. 
This  idea  was  emphasized  by  Saul  (Greek,  Paul),  at 
first  the  opponent  of  the  Christians,  but  later  their  most 
eloquent  advocate.  This  decisive  declaration  ultimate- 


IO4         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

ly  accepted  by  these  Jewish  Christians  who  first  clung 
to  the  Law,  made  Christianity  a  new  religion  for  the 
heathen  world.  For  this  reason  we  might  call  Paul 
the  real  father  of  Christianity.  The  followers  of  the 
two  religions  had  now  become  people  of  two  different 
races — Judaism  followed  almost  exclusively  by  Semitic 
Jews,  Christianity  by  Aryans — Greeks,  Romans  and 
other  Europeans.  This  racial  distinction  became  the 
final  barrier  which  completely  separated  them. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

PHILO. 

We  are  now  ready  to  consider  one  to  whom  fre- 
quent reference  has  been  made — the  greatest  of  the 
Alexandrian  Jews,  styled  the  "noblest  Judean  of  his 
age" — Philo  Judaeus.  He  was  born  in  Alexandria  of 
good  family,  about  15  B.  c.  E.  ,  His  brother,  Alex- 
ander, was  given  the  influential  post  of  Alabarch,  far- 
mer of  taxes.  Both  received  the  best  education  the 
times  afforded  and  were  men  of  broad  culture.  Philo 
early  showed  a  taste  for  literature  in  general,  and  phi- 
losophy in  particular.  His  circumstances  enabled  him 
to  devote  himself  to  a  literary  life,  for  which  he  was 
peculiarly  gifted.  His  warm  interest  in  the  cause  of 
his  people  has  already  been  shown  in  his  journey  to 
Rome  as  one  of  the  ambassadors  to  plead  before  the 
Emperor  Caligula  against  their  persecution.  Of  this 
whole  incident  he  himself  gives  a  graphic  account  in  his 
chronicles  of  the  Jewish  events  of  his  time. 


PHILO.  IO5 

A  many-sided  genius,  he  was  the  best  exponent  of 
that  Hellenistic  school  that  sought  to  harmonize  the 
principles  of  Judaism  with  Greek  philosophy.  He  was 
thoroughly  versed  in  both.  His  works,  as  those  of  all 
this  school,  were  written  in  Greek.  In  his  commentary 
on  Scripture  following  the  allegorical  method  already 
referred  to,  he  treats  all  the  incidents  in  Genesis  as 
symbolic  of  human  development  and  moral  truths.  He 
did  not,  however,  go  to  the  extreme  of  neglecting  Jew- 
ish observance  on  the  strength  of  metaphoric  interpre- 
tation. Indeed,  he  even  rebuked  those  who  did. 

In  his  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic  Law  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, he  has  the  education  of  the  heathen  chiefly  in 
mind.  He  reveals  the  harmony  of  its  precepts  with 
nature,  grouping  all  duties  under  the  Ten  Command- 
ments. He  points  out  with  enthusiasm  the  humanity 
of  the  Law,  and  completely  refutes  slanders  against 
Judaism  by  citing  examples  of  its  purity,  breadth  and 
philanthropy.  His  contrasts  are  the  severest  condem- 
nation of  Greek  and  Roman  morals. 

In  his  philosophy  he  again  applies  the  allegorical, 
or  rather  in  this  case  let  us  say  the  Midrashic  method 
of  the  rabbis  to  the  Pentateuch.  He  attempts  to  show 
that  the  lofty  ideas  found  in  the  Platonic,  Stoic  and 
Neopythegorean  philosophies  were  already  taught  in 
the  Jewish  Scripture.  From  Moses,  the  teacher  of 
mankind,  the  Greek  philosophers  derived  their  wisdom. 
From  the  Mosaic  Law  comes  the  highest  and  truest 
religious  revelation.  Thus  he  endeavored  to  win  Jews 
to  an  appreciation  of  Greek  literature,  and  Greeks  to 
an  appreciation  of  Jewish  Scripture. 

A  thorough  monotheist,  his  ideas  of  God  show  the 


IO6          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

philosophic  influence.  God  alone  is  perfect,  unchang- 
able,  devoid  of  all  qualities  and  undefinable,  but  at  the 
same  time  combining  all  perfections.  Absolutely  per- 
fect, He  cannot  come  in  contact  with  matter.  The 
gap  seemed  too  vast  from  God  to  material  things, 
which  were  considered  unclean  and  engendering  sin. 
So  Philo  taught  that  God  acted  on  the  world  by  in- 
termediary causes  or  powers  which  he  first  created. 
These  powers  he  calls  Ideas,  or  again,  Angels.  In 
Greek  he  styles  them  Logoi  (plural  of  logos,  having 
the  two  meanings — Reason  and  Word).  So  God  then 
created  all  things  through  Reason  or  Wisdom.  At 
times  he  speaks  of  these  Logoi  as  distinct  from  God, 
and  at  times  as  emanations  from  Him.  The  essence  of 
all  of  this  he  calls  THE  LOGOS — a  product  of,  or 
figuratively,  a  son  of  active  divine  intelligence.  With 
reason  then  expressed  in  language,  "the  Word," — 
God  created  the  world. 

It  is  true  that  we  find  the  Scripture  (See  Proverbs 
viii),  and  more  particularly  the  Apocryphal  Book, 
Ecclesiasticus,  personifying  Wisdom,  God  calling  the 
world  into  being  through  its  means.  The  Targum 
(Chaldaic  translation  of  the  Bible)  identifies  the 
Word  of  God  with  the  Divine  Presence,  but  in  this 
case  it  is  used  rather  as  a  figure  of  speech.  Philo 
goes  a  step  further,  and  almost  depicts  it  as  a  distinct 
entity. 

So  far  Philo;  but  later  Christian  mystics  put  a 
strange  construction  on  his  theory.  They  declared  that 
the  Logos,  or  Word  of  God,  actually  became  flesh — 
a  human  being.  It  was  then  but  a  step  to  declare  that 
Jesus  was  that  Logos,  or  human  being — that  he  was 


PHILO.  107 

the  son  of  God,  not  in  the  Greek,  metaphoric  sense, 
but  in  the  literal  sense — that  Jesus  was  therefore  a 
species  of  divinity  too.  It  was  not  till  Christianity's 
second  stage  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  in  this  way 
raised  from  a  real  man  into  an  imaginary  divinity. 
Thus  the  link  with  Judaism  was  broken  in  the  rejection 
of  its  fundamental  principle  of  monotheism — the  be- 
lief in  but  One  Indivisible  God. 

Philo  is,  of  course,  only  unconsciously  the  influence 
of  this  doctrinal  change,  for  he  did  not  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  new  sect  of  Christians  and  never  men- 
tions it,  and  this  idea  developed  after  his  day. 

One  word  more  on  his  philosophy.  Evil,  he  said, 
is  derived  from  Matter,  which  he  conceived  as  lifeless,, 
formless,  and  not  of  God.  (This  is  not  our  modern 
idea  of  matter).  The  Soul  is  an  emanation  of  God — 
like  the  Ideas  or  Angels,  but  the  souls  attracted  by  the 
sensuous  descend  into  mortal  bodies.  This  earthly 
body  is  the  cause  of  evil.  Hence,  man  should  try  to 
suppress  his  desires  and  passions  and  earthly  longings. 
For  this  man  needs  the  help  of  God.  The  wise  and 
virtuous  are  uplifted  out  of  themselves  to  a  closer 
knowledge  of  God,  and  God's  spirit  dwells  in  them. 
This  is  highest  happiness.  In  this  philosophy  are  then, 
contained  all  the  inspiring  elements  of  lofty  religion. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

For  a  survey  of  Philo's  teaching  put  in  a  popular 
form,  read  "Florilegium  Philonis,"  by  Montefiore, 
Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  Vol.  VII ;  in  the  same  vol- 
ume, "Philo  Concerning  the  Contemplative  Life," 
Conybeare;  and  in  Vol.  V,  "Latest  Researches  on 
Philo,"  Cohn. 


1O8        A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

THE  LAST  PROCURATORS. 
PROCURATORS  ROMAN  EHPERORS 

YEAR  YEAR 

Fadus 44      Claudius 41 

Tiberus  Alexander  .  45  " 

Ventidius  Cumanus 48  " 

Felix 52      Nero 54 

Festus... 60          " 

Albinus 62 

Gessius  Florus 6b          " 


Fall  of  Jerusalem 70       Vespasian  68-79 

Agrippa's  death  was  a  signal  for  general  indignities 
by  Greeks  and  Romans  throughout  Palestine  against 
the  people  who  had  lost  their  defender.  Burdensome 
taxation  would  have  been  borne;  but  all  the  procu- 
rators once  more  placed  over  them  seemed  actuated 
by  the  wanton  purpose  of  trampling  upon  everything 
the  Jews  held  sacred,  holding  their  religion  up  to  scorn, 
and  forcing  them  into  rebellion  through  madness  of 
despair. 

Fadus,  the  first  of  the  second  group,  was  the  most 
harmless.  A  deluded  enthusiast  named  Theudas 
claiming  to  be  the  Messiah  and  to  be  gifted  with  super- 
natural powers,  was  apprehended  and  put  to  death 
together  with  many  of  his  ^followers. 

Tiberius  Alexander,  the  next  procurator,  was  a 
nephew  of  Philo,  but  unlike  his  uncle,  had  abandoned 
Judaism,  and  therefore  was  a  very  unfit  appointee.  He 
found  it  necessary  to  put  to  death  two  sons  of  Judas, 
the  Galilean.  These  Zealots  were  the  advance  guard 
of  a  revolution.  Rebellions  continued  to  grow  in  grav- 


THE  LAST  PROCURATORS.  IOO, 

ity  with  each  successive  rule.  During  the  administra- 
tion of  Ventidius  Cumanus  a  rebellion  broke  out 
through  the  wanton  indecency  of  a  Roman  soldier  dur- 
ing the  Passover  celebration.  In  putting  down  the  in- 
surrection Cumanus  ordered  many  thousands  slain. 
Once  more  the  Zealots  started  to  lead  an  attack  against 
Samaria  to  punish  the  murder  of  some  of  their  breth- 
ren, for  the  base  Cumanus  allowed  marauders  to  rove 
unmolested  on  the  payment  of  sufficient  bribe.  Against 
the  Zealots,  however,  he  led  an  army,  for  their  of- 
fenses were  political,  not  moral.  Through  the  inter- 
vention of  young  Agrippa,  Cumanus  was  banished. 

But  the  worst  Procurator  was  to  follow — Felix.  He 
goaded  the  Jews  beyond  endurance.  Rebellion  was 
now  rife  and  it  could  no  longer  be  quelled.  All  the 
appointees  to  the  procuratorship  were  bad,  but  the  ap- 
pointment of  this  man  as  Judea's  ruler  was  an  out- 
rage. He  was  a  freedman,  i.  e.,  one  from  the  low 
classes.  His  lust  and  tyranny  in  public  and  private 
life  revealed  his  base  origin.  How  natural  that  Judah 
should  come  to  hate  Rome  when  she  was  represented 
by  such  hateful  creatures?  How  natural  that  the  re- 
bellious element — the  Zealots — should  grow  in  num- 
ber and  determination.  These  Felix  punished  with 
cruel  recklessness,  resorting  often  to  treachery  to  en- 
trap them.  By  such  doing  he  fomented  instead  of 
decreasing  the  evil. 

For  a  still  more  fanatical  group  now  made  their 
appearance — outcome  of  these  unhappy  times.  They 
were  called  Sicarii,  from  the  short  daggers,  sicae,  with 
which  they  secretly  slew  their  opponents.  These  po- 


IIO         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

litical  assassinations  made  Jerusalem  unsafe.  Felix 
was  even  unscrupulous  enough  to  make  use  of  these 
deperate  men  to  slay  the  High  Priest  Jonathan,  whose 
only  crime  was  that  he  begged  him  to  administer  his 
office  more  worthily,  and  whose  only  crime  against 
the  Sicarii  that  he  did  not  sanction  their  outrages. 
These  wild,  misguided  men  were  religious  enthusiasts 
of  a  frenzied  sort,  for  wanton  injustice  breeds  such 
types.  Whenever  they  gathered  with  crowds  of  de- 
luded followers  in  the  wilderness,  claiming  a  divine 
call  to  overthrow  Rome,  Felix  always  had  .his  cohorts 
ready  to  hew  them  down.  He  knew  no  remedies  other 
than  bloodshed.  In  one  instance  where  many  of  the 
followers  were  slain,  while  the  leader, — an  Egyptian 
Jew — escaped,  some  awaited  his  return  as  a  Messiah 
who  would  deliver  them. 

Gradually  a  large  part  of  the  nation  was  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  rebellion.  The  mismanagement  of 
Felix  bi  ought  also  conflict  among  the  priests  and  quar- 
rels for  the  tithes.  Conflict  arose  in  Caesaria  between 
Syrians  and  Jews  as  to  civic  rights  and  privileges. 
Felix  partially  decided  in  favor  of  the  Syrians  and 
again  resorted  to  slaughter  to  quell  the  disturbance, 
which  only  tended  to  increase  it.  By  favoritism  and 
bribery  the  Jews  of  Caesaria  were  deprived  of  civic 
rights,  which  they  had  hitherto  possessed  and  were 
given  a  subordinate  standing.  At  last  this  creature 
was  recalled  in  60  by  Emperor  Nero. 

His  successor  was  Festus,  who  meant  well,  but  who 
could  do  little  in  this  demoralized  state.  Things  had 
gone  too  far  to  be  smoothed  over.  The  upheaval  had 


THE  LAST  PROCURATORS.  Ill 

to  come.  The  Sicarii  continued  their  assassinations, 
regarding  all  the  moderates  as  their  enemies. 

At  the  death  of  Festus  and  after  an  interval  of  an- 
archy, Albinus — a  second  Felix — was  appointed — a 
public  plunderer,  a  bribe-taker  from  all  parties.  Well- 
to-do  criminals  could  buy  their  freedom  from  him ;  only 
the  poor  remained  in  prison.  The  High-priesthood  at 
this  time  was  held  by  a  most  unscrupulous  man,  Anan- 
ias, who  took  by  violence  the  tithes  of  the  priests.  At 
last  Albinus  secretly  joined  the  robber  bands  of  Sicarii. 
When  recalled  in  62,  he  maliciously  opened  all  the 
prisons  and  set  the  malefactors  free  to  fill  the  country 
with  lawless  men.  Of  course,  this  made  it  still  harder 
for  his  successor  and  for  the  people.  How  the  lives 
and  fates  and  fortunes  of  these  hapless  Judeans  were 
bandied  about  to  gratify  the  wanton  lust  of  these  ty- 
rants and  scoundrels! 

The  last  procurator,  Gessius  Florus,  held  the  post 
till  66  and  then  the  storm  burst.  For  the  climax  of 
outrageous  rule  was  reached  in  him.  Josephus  says 
that  compared  with  him  Albinus  was  a  law-abiding 
citizen  and  to  be  praised  as  a  benefactor!  Need  we 
add  more  ?  He  did  not  as  Albinus  even  hide  his  crimes. 
His  plunderings  were  conducted  by  wholesale.  He  was 
verily  a  partner  of  robbers.  Surely  the  time  for  Judah 
to  strike  a  blow  for  freedom  had  come. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

A  reference  to  Felix  will  be  found  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. Paul  appeared  before  him.  (See  Act,  xxiii- 
24-) 


112          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER    XX. 

JUDEA'S  WAR  WITH  ROME. 

When  Florus  after  robbing  the  people  began  openly 
to  rob  the  Temple,  the  last  thread  of  endurance 
snapped.  Called  in  bitter  irony  a  beggar,  for  whom 
forsooth  alms  must  be  collected,  Florus  took  a  bloody 
revenge.  A  second  wanton  attack  upon  the  long  suf- 
fering people  by  his  arriving  cohorts,  compelled  them 
to  rise  against  the  Roman  soldiers  in  self  defense. 
They  gained  possession  of  the  Temple  Mount  and 
Florus  at  last,  seeing  the  mischief  he  had  effected,  fled 
to  Caesarea.  Agrippa  tried  hard  to  dissuade  the  peo- 
ple from  a  hopeless  struggle  against  Rome,  but  he  was 
a  man  without  influence.  The  Temple  offerings  for 
the  Roman  emperor  were  stopped — that  was,  so  to 
speak,  the  official  renunciation  of  their  allegiance.  The 
more  temperate  could  not  restrain  the  masses  from 
this  determination. 

These  moderates,  who  represented  the  judicious, 
formed  a  "Peace  Party."  Conflict  arose  between  them 
and  the  advocates  of  war,  in  which  Agrippa  who  aided 
the  former  with  his  troops,  had  his  palace  burned  and 
his  soldiers  put  to  flight.  Soon  the  fortress  towers 
held  by  the  Roman  soldiers  had  to  yield  and  the  garri- 
son was  slain.  The  revolution  extended  to  all  the  out- 
lying towns  in  which  Jews  and  Gentiles  fought  against 
each  other,  and  spread  even  so  far  as  Alexandria. 

The  governor  of  Syria,  Cestius  Callus,  thoroughly 
alarmed,  came  to  Jerusalem  with  a  picked  army,  but 


JUDEA'S  WAR  WITH  ROME.  113 

after  a  partial  success  he  was  forced  to  retreat.  So 
vigorously  was  he  pursued  by  these  dauntless  men, 
that  only  by  leaving  most  of  his  baggage  behind  him — 
of  great  value  to  the  revolutionists — could  he  escape 
at  all,  and  then  with  but  a  remnant  of  his  army.  This 
unlocked  for  success  left  the  Peace  Party  in  a  hope- 
less minority.  Roman  allies  could  do  naught  but  leave 
the  capital.  The  Jews  now  began  to  organize  their 
forces  and  some  of  the  highest  men  in  the  city  led  in 
the  defense. 

At  an  assembly  of  the  people  Joseph  ben  Gorion  and 
the  High  Priest  Ananus  were  given  charge  of  Jeru- 
salem itself.  Two  men  of  the  high-priestly  family 
were  sent  to  Idumea.  In  Jerusalem  the  walls  were 
strengthened  and  the  youths  trained  for  soldiers. 
JOSEPHUS,  a  man  of  but  thirty  years,  later  historian 
of  this  war  and  known  so  far  only  as  a  scholar,  was 
sent  to  Galilee.  Here  he  was  to  gather  an  army  from 
among  the  people  and  to  meet  the  first  brunt  of  Rome's 
experienced  hosts  as  they  would  arrive  via  Syria.  For 
the  time  being  he  was  the  governor  of  Galilee  and  ap- 
pointed greater  and  lesser  councils  to  strengthen  the 
fortifications  of  all  the  cities.  He  had  further  to  meet 
the  opposition  to  his  appointment  in  the  province  it- 
self, chiefly  by  one  JOHN  of  GISCHALA,  a  leader  bold 
and  violent.  For  Josephus  was  not  entirely  trusted. 
His  attitude  was  altogether  too  moderate  to  satisfy 
these  determined  rebels.  In  his  heart  of  hearts  he 
realized  the  impossibility  of  success.  That  very  con- 
viction at  once  unfitted  him  for  leadership. 

The  Emperor  Nero,  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  the 


114         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

governor  of  Syria,  entrusted  the  task  of  quelling  the 
rebellion  to  the  experienced  general,  Vespasian.  He 
at  once  sent  a  garrison  of  six  thousand  to  the  important 
Galilean  city,  Sepphoris,  which  took  possession  before 
the  Jewish  army  arrived.  As  the  Roman  host  ap- 
proached Galilee,  Josephus'  untrained  soldiers  re- 
treated to  the  highlands,  leaving  the  whole  Galilean 
plain  in  possession  of  Vespasian  without  his  striking 
A  blow. 

Josephus  sent  word  to  Jerusalem  that  if  he  was  to 
meet  the  Romans,  he  must  have  an  army.  The  re- 
quest came  too  late.  His  troops,  such  as  they  were, 
retired  to  the  fortress  of  Jotapata,  north  of  Sepphoris. 
Vespasian  appeared  before  it  and  a  desperate  struggle 
followed.  Josephus  was  a  skilful  commander  and  his 
men  showed  dauntless  courage,  but  Rome  on  its  side 
had  all  the  experience  of  war  together  with  overwhelm- 
ing numbers.  The  first  attack  failed  and  a  siege  began. 
Josephus  showed  wonderful  craft*in  obtaining  food  for 
his  garrison  and  in  breaking  the  force  of  the  Roman 
battering  rams.  But  these  means  could  only  delay  the 
end;  they  could  not  change  it.  The  besieged  were 
worn  out  by  sleeplessness  and  starvation.  The  wall 
was  scaled  when  the  exhausted  watchmen  were  asleep. 
All  were  either  slain  or  sold  into  slavery.  The  city 
and  its  fortifications  were  levelled  to  the  ground. 

Josephus  with  forty  companions  escaped  to  a  cave. 
Against  his  advice  to  surrender,  they  all  decided  that 
they  would  die  by  their  own  hands.  Josephus  by  strat- 
egem  alone  managed  to  escape  this  fate.  He  appeared 
before  Vespasian  and  by  adroit  flattery  was  favorably 
received  into  his  camp. 


THE  SIEGE  115 

CHAPTER    XXL 

THE  SIEGE. 

When  Vespasian  reached  Tiberias,  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  the  people  opened  their  gates  and  at  the  re- 
quest of  Agrippa — who  had  now  wholly  thrown  in  his 
fortunes  with  the  Romans — they  were  well  treated. 
In  the  meantime  the  army  of  TITUS,  son  of  Vespasian, 
took  the  city  of  Tarichea. 

Glance  for  a  moment  at  the  map,  so  that  a  mental 
picture  may  be  formed  of  the  territory  involved  in  the 
great  struggle :  Phoenicia,  the  Lebanon  Mts.  and  Syria 
ran  across  the  north.  Immediately  underneath  was  the 
province  of  Galilee,  partly  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  province  of 
Gaulonitis  and  Decopolis,  the  Jordan  and  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  being  the  dividing  line.  Batanaea  lay  to  the 
east  again  of  Gaulonitis.  Still  farther  south  was  Ju- 
dea,  with  the  Jordan  dividing  it  from  Perea.  Idumea 
lay  in  the  extreme  south. 

Vespasian  was  still  in  the  north  and  next  attacked 
the  strong  fortress  of  Gamala  in  Gaulonitis.  But  after 
an  entrance  was  gained  into  the  city,  the  Jews  fought 
so  desperately  that  the  Romans  were  repulsed  with 
severe  loss  and  for  a  time  were  afraid  to  renew  the 
attack.  But  on  a  second  determined  sally  it  was  taken. 
At  the  same  time  Mount  Tabor  was  taken  by  a  Roman 
force.  There  was  now  left  in  Galilee  only  one  fortress 
to  be  taken — Gischala.  This  task  was  entrusted  to 
Titus.  Its  gates  were  soon  opened,  but  its  controlling 


1 1 6         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

spirit,  John  of  Gischala,  with  his  band  of  Zealots  es- 
caped to  Jerusalem.  By  the  end  of  the  year  67  all 
northern  Palestine  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

These  defeats  brought  consternation  to  Jerusalem. 
The  leaders,  who  had  been  taken  from  the  aristocracy, 
were  blamed  and  deposed.  Some  were  imprisoned  and 
men  from  the  people  were  put  in  their  place.  But  the 
change  was  not  made  without  bloodshed.  Alas,  here 
was  the  beginning  of  a  civil  conflict  as  well — war  with- 
in war.  Judea's  cup  of  misery  was  full.  John  of  Gis- 
chala, the  escaped  Zealot,  was  soon  at  the  head  of  the 
extreme  fanatic  party.  Fighting  contingents  of  mal- 
contents came  into  Jerusalem  from  all  over  the  country 
and  joined  the  Zealots,  which  thus  became  the  ruling 
power.  They  threw  discretion  to  the  winds.  A  man 
of  the  common  people  was  now  chosen  as  High  Priest, 
though  this  office  had  always  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
aristocracy. 

The  Idumeans  were  now  invited  to  enter  Jerusalem 
and  join  forces  with  the  Zealots.  They  began  at  once 
a  bloody  attack  on  the  party  of  law  and  order.  The 
old  leaders,  men  of  high  birth,  were  put  to  death.  Ver- 
ily it  was  Judea's  reign  of  terror.  After  assisting  in 
all  this  mischief,  the  Idumeans  departed.  The  new 
Christian  community  also  left  Jerusalem,  deserting 
their  brethren  in  the  sore  hour  of  need,  and  took  refuge 
in  a  heathen  city.  The  shrewd  Vespasian  made  no 
haste  to  attack  the  Capital,  hoping  that  the  opposing 
parties  left  to  themselves  would  weaken  each  other 
and  make  his  task  more  easy.  He  contented  himself 


THE  SIEGE  117 

with  placing  fortified  garrisons  in  the  chief  surround- 
ing places. 

In  the  meantime  Nero  died,  in  the  year  68.  Galba 
was  made  emperor  only  to  be  murdered  a  few  months 
after.  These  events  were  watched  by  Vespasian  with 
keen  eyes.  The  man  who  had  the  army  with  him 
might  win  the  purple.  He  therefore  made  a  pause  in 
the  war. 

Another  wild  Zealot,  SIMON  BEN  GIORA,  began 
a  plundering  expedition  during  the  cessation  of  hos- 
tilities, carrying  devastation  wherever  he  went.  In 
69,  after  a  year's  pause,  Vespasian  vigorously  renewed 
hostilities  by  subduing  the  remaining  outlying  dis- 
tricts. There  was  now  left  for  subjugation  a  few  for- 
tresses and  the  Capital. 

Stopped  from  his  robber  raids  by  Vespasian's  vigor, 
Simon  ben  Giora  was  now  hailed  in  Jerusalem.  Here 
all  was  confusion  and  demoralization.  The  reckless 
tyrant  of  Gischala  had  indulged  in  terrible  excesses. 
The  people  hoped  that  the  admission  of  Simon  would 
rid  them  of  John's  bloodthirsty  rule;  but  there  was 
little  choice  between  them. 

Although  Vitellius  was  now  made  emperor  of  Rome, 
the  armies  in  Egypt  and  Palestine  decided  to  nominate 
Vespasian.  He  hastened  to  Rome,  found  Vitellius 
murdered,  and  his  own  candidature  unopposed.  So  in 
the  year  70  he  was  acknowledged  emperor  by  both 
east  and  west,  and  the  prosecution  of  the  Judean  war 
was  left  in  the  hands  of  his  son,  Titus. 

In  Jerusalem  the  reign  of  terror  continued.  There 
was  now  a  third  war  party  under  one  Eliezar.  Each 


1 1 8          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

regarded  the  two  others  as  enemies,  and  each  held  a 
certain  portion  of  the  city  as  jealously  against  the 
others  as  against  the  Romans.  Simon  ben  Giora  held 
the  upper  part  of  the  lower  city  situated  on  one  hill, 
and  the  whole  of  the  upper  city  situated  on  another 
hill  called  Acra.  John  of  Gischala  was  entrenched  in 
the  Temple  Mount.  Eliezar  held  the  court  of  the 
Temple,  but  soon  joined  forces  with  John.  In  the 
madness  of  their  folly  they  played  into  the  hands  of 
the  Romans  by  destroying  grain  rather  than  let  it  fall 
into  the  hands  of  their  rivals. 

Titus  with  an  immense  army  appeared  before  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  in  the  spring  of  the  fatal  year  70. 
Still  he  by  no  means  carried  all  before  him.  When 
we  read  of  the  brave  and  stubborn  resistance  of  the 
Jews  in  spite  of  the  unfortunate  conflicts  within,  we 
can  better  realize  how  successful  their  resistance  might 
have  been  had  they  presented  a  united  front  to  the 
enemy. 

The  situation  of  the  city  had  its  natural  advantages. 
It  was  built  on  two  hills  with  a  ravine  between,  while 
the  Temple  standing  in  spacious  grounds,  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  strong  walls,  was  a  citadel  in  itself. 
Attached  to  it  was  the  castle  of  Antonia.  The  upper 
and  lower  divisions  of  the  city  had  their  own  separate 
walls,  a  town's  main  protection  before  the  days  of 
gunpowder.  There  was  a  common  wall  around  both 
divisions  and  a  third  around  the  suburb,  Bezetha. 

When  the  battering  rams  of  Titus  began  attacking 
the  outer  wall  in  three  places,  John  and  Simon  stopped 
their  feud  and  banded  together  at  last  to  meet  the 


THE  FALL  OF  JERUSALEM.  . 

common  enemy.  It  was  only  after  desperate  fighting 
for  very  many  days  that  the  Romans  got  possession  of 
the  first  wall.  Five  days  later  the  second  wall  was 
taken,  though  the  enemy  was  held  back  for  four  days 
longer.  Earth  defenses  were  now  built  by  the  legions 
of  Titus  against  the  different  fortifications,  but  no  soon- 
er were  these  built  than  they  fell,  undermined  by  the 
vigilant  Simon  and  John. 

Titus  now  applied  new  measures  of  severity.  A 
stricter  siege  was  maintained.  The  city  was  reduced 
to  famine  and  poor  creatures  stealing  out  to  gather 
food  were  crucified  in  sight  of  the  defenders.  Then 
he  built  a  wall  to  shut  off  all  possible  escape  and  so 
tried  to  starve  them  out.  The  sufferings  of  the  be- 
sieged, vividly  portrayed  by  Josephus,  were  desperate 
indeed  and  led  to  still  more  desperate  remedies. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 
THE  FALL  OF  JERUSALEM. 

Titus  built  new  fortifications  and  this  time  the  at- 
tempt to  destroy  them  was  not  successful.  But  no 
sooner  had  the  wall  fallen  under  the  catapults  shot 
from  the  Roman  battering  rams  than  a  second  wall 
appeared  behind  it  built  by  the  foresight  of  John  of 
Gischala.  After  many  attempts  this  wall  was  scaled. 


I2O        A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

The  Romans  reached  the  Temple  walls  and  took  the 
Antonia  tower,  which  they  immediately  destroyed. 

Yet  during  all  this  time  the  daily  sacrifices  were 
continued  in  the  Temple.  In  the  presence  of  the  grim 
monsters,  war  and  starvation,  this  religious  obligation 
was  not  forgotten.  A  proposition  of  surrender  was 
made  at  this  dire  hour,  but  they  would  not  yield.  It 
is  true  Titus  chose  an  unfortunate  ambassador — Jose- 
phus — who  was  regarded  by  the  warriors  in  Jerusalem 
as  a  traitor.  Do  you  really  think  he  was? 

Now,  within  the  narrower  compass  of  the  Temple 
site,  the  siege  was  maintained,  though  it  was  but  the 
beginning  of  the  end.  First  ramparts  were  erected  by 
Titus  against  the  outer  walls;  but  these  walls  were  so 
strong  that  he  could  only  gain  admittance  by  burning 
down  the  gates.  Terrifically  did  the  Jewish  soldiers, 
wasted  by  famine,  contest  every  inch  of  ground,  giv- 
ing to  the  Romans  many  a  repulse.  But  overwhelming 
numbers  told.  Titus  had  decided  to  save  the  Temple, 
but  his  vandal  soldiers  set  it  on  fire.  The  attempts  of 
Titus  to  quench  it  were  in  vain.  The  beautiful  struc- 
ture of  marble  and  gold — monument  of  Herod's  pride 
— was  reduced  to  ashes.  While  it  was  burning  the 
Romans  began  an  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  men, 
women  and  children. 

John  of  Gischala  and  Simon  ben  Giora  with  a  small 
band,  now  fell  back  to  the  last  refuge,  the  upper  city. 
Their  request  for  liberty  on  condition  of  surrender  was 
refused.  The  lower  city  was  now  burnt  and  new  ram- 
parts built  against  the  last  stronghold.  Yet  it  took 
some  weeks  before  entrance  was  finally  forced,  and  the 


THE  FALL  OF  JERUSALEM.  121 

Romans  continued  their  savage  work  of  burning  and 
massacre. 

The  city  was  razed  to  the  ground — a  few  gates  of 
Herod's  palace  and  a  piece  of  wall  were  alone  left 
standing.  The  survivors  were  sent  to  labor  in  un- 
wholesome mines  to  gather  wealth  for  their  despoilers. 
Some  were  reserved  for  Roman  sport  in  the  amphi- 
theatre. John,  discovered  in  a  subterranean  vault  and 
begging  like  a  craven  for  mercy,  was  imprisoned  for 
life.  Simon  ben  Giora  graced  the  Roman  triumph. 

Thus  fell  the  city  of  Jerusalem — the  religious  cap- 
ital of  the  world — in  the  year  70  A.  c.  E.,  on  the  same 
date  it  is  said — the  gth  of  Ab — on  which  it  had  fallen 
nearly  seven  hundred  years  earlier  under  the  attacks 
of  the  Babylonians.  So  the  Fast  of  Ab  commemorates 
the  double  tragedy.  But  the  work  of  conquest  and  the 
barbaric  rejoicings,  consisting  of  forced  gladiatorial 
combats  between  Jewish  prisoners,  together  with  games 
and  triumphs,  continued  some  two  years  longer.  There 
were  still  three  outlying  strongholds  to  be  conquered — 
Herodium,  Macharus,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  Masada,  far  to  the  south.  The  first  two  soon 
fell,  but  Masada  offered  a  stubborn  resistance  which 
its  natural  position  favored.  Under  Eliezar  and  some 
Sicarii  the  dauntless  bravery  of  Jerusalem  and  Jotapata 
was  repeated.  They  determined  not  to  die  by  the 
swords  of  the  Romans,  so  when  the  soldiers  entered 
they  found  the  little  band  all  slain  by  their  own  hands. 

On  the  site  of  the  old  Temple  was  built  another,  dedi- 
cated to  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and,  with  a  refinement  of 


122         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

cruelty,  the  Jews  throughout  the  Roman  dominions 
had  to  pay  toward  its  maintenance  the  taxes  they  had 
hitherto  paid  to  the  support  of  their  own  beloved  sanc- 
tuary. Thus  fell  the  Israelitish  nation  that  under 
varied  fortunes  had  continued  unbroken,  except  during 
the  Babylonian  captivity,  since  the  days  of  Saul,  i.  e., 
for  over  a  thousand  years. 

Judea  remained  a  separate  Roman  province,  but  was 
no  longer  a  home  for  the  people  whose  possession  it 
once  was.  So  completely  was  it  levelled  to  the  ground 
that  there  was  nothing  left  to  make  those  who  came 
there  believe  it  had  once  been  inhabitated.  Rebuilt 
at  a  later  day,  even  the  name  was  changed  to  Aelia 
Capitolina.  But  great  names  cannot  so  easily  be 
erased  by  the  ruthless  hand  of  man. 

] 
What  was  now  to  become  of  the  remaining  Jews? 

What  was  their  status  in  the  world?  Nation,  Tem- 
ple, independence  were  gone.  Gone  too  were  their 
arms,  their  means,  their  nobility,  and  all  political 
power.  Would  it  not  seem  that  this  must  be  the  end, 
that  their  name  and  identity  must  be  ultimately  merged 
with  their  surroundings?  Such  had  been  the  fate  of 
other  nations  as  completely,  conquered — Ammon,  Moab, 
Assyria,  Phoenicia.  But  Israel  was  made  of  different 
stuff.  Its  epitaph  was  not  yet  to  be  written. 


THE  WORKS  OF  JOSEPHUS.  123 

CHAPTER     XXIII. 

THE  WORKS  OF  JOSEPHUS. 

What  literature  did  this  sad  period  produce?  There 
was  neither  heart  nor  leisure  to  turn  to  poetry  or  phil- 
osophy, or  even  to  write  a  second  "Lamentations,"  But 
in  the  prosaic  field  of  history  some  important  works 
were  produced  by  one  individual,  who  hardly  deserves 
to  be  included  in  the  fold  of  Israel — Josephus. 

After  the  war  he  was  satisfied  to  receive  favor  from 
the  hand  of  the  emperor  who  had  overthrown  the  Jew- 
ish State — Vespasian — and  even  appended  the  emper- 
or's first  name,  Flavius,  to  his  own — a  piece  of  flat- 
tery, under  the  circumstances,  wholly  contemptible. 
When  we  see  him  living  at  ease  on  a  pension  given  by 
Rome  while  his  own  brethren  were  working  in  the 
lead  mines  of  Egypt  or  glutting  the  slave-markets  of 
Europe,  we  cannot  but  contrast  his  character  with  that 
of  Jeremiah  who  had  been  placed  in  similar  circum- 
stances some  centuries  earlier. 

In  the  last  days  of  the  first  nationality,  when  Baby- 
lonia was  then  thundering  against  the  gates  of  Jeru- 
salem, Jeremiah  belonged  to  the  Peace  Party  of  his 
day,  not  for  reasons  of  expediency  such  as  actuated 
Josephus,  but  from  intense  religious  conviction.  (See 
Vol.  III.,  "People  of  the  Book,"  Chap,  xxviii.)  Ne- 
buchadnezzar, regarding  this  attitude  as  friendly 
toward  Babylon,  had  offered  to  Jeremiah  ease  and  lib- 
erty after  Judah  was  laid  in  the  dust.  But  he  scorned 


124        A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

to  receive  gifts  from  the  enemies  of  his  country  or  to 
enjoy  benefits  through  their  misfortune.  Though  they 
had  rejected  his  advice  and  even  persecuted  him  for  it, 
he  made  their  lot  his  own,  miserable  though  it  was. 
Like  Moses,  he  died  in  the  wilderness  with  the  gen- 
eration who  had  brought  that  fate  upon  themselves, 
because  they  lacked  his  faith. 

But  it  is  not  the  character,  but  the  works  of  Jose- 
phus  that  we  would  discuss  now,  for  he  was  an  un- 
doubted scholar.  Though  in  his  last  years  he  may  have 
lived  as  pagan,  he  certainly  wrote  as  Jew.  He  loved 
his  people,  but  lacked  the  magnanimity  to  share  their 
misfortunes.  This  was  his  fatal  weakness.  Posterity 
is  grateful  to  Josephus  for  his  History  of  the  Jews, 
•called  "Antiquities  of  the  Jews"  in  twenty  volumes, 
the  writing  of  which  may  have  formed  the  chief  occu- 
pation of  his  later  years.  Perhaps  he  felt  that  he 
might  yet  serve  Israel's  cause  in  this  way.  He  be- 
gins his  chronicle  with  the  Bible  records,  which  he  em- 
bellishes with  many  a  Midrashic  story,  and  carries  the 
narrative  right  down  to  the  procuratorship  of  Florus. 
Written  for  Greek  and  Roman  readers,  he  sought  to 
give  them  a  better  and  truer  estimate  of  his  people. 
Indeed,  in  all  his  works  he  never  loses  an  opportunity 
to  defend  the  honor  of  Israel.  In  his  next  work, 
"Wars  of  the  Jews,"  in  seven  books,  he  begins  with 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  thus  duplicating  part  of  his  his- 
tory. But  the  first  two  books  are  but  introductory  to 
his  real  theme,  the  war  with  Rome.  He  presents  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  last  scenes  of  Judea's  death  strug- 
gle, of  part  of  which  he  was  an  eye  witness  and  in  part 


THE  WORKS  OF  JOSEPHUS.  125 

an  actual  participator.  It  is  carefully  and  skilfully 
compiled  and  as  a  contemporary  record  it  -is  invaluable. 

It  was  first  written  in  his  mother  tongue,  Aramaic, 
and  later  rewritten  in  Greek.  The  work  was  endorsed 
by  Vespasian,  Titus  and  Agrippa.  It  may  be  said  that 
such  a  man  was  not  of  fine  enough  character  to  be  an 
impartial  historian;  but  impartial  historians  are  quite 
a  modern  institution.  All  ancient  historians  took  great 
liberties  both  with  events  and  numbers,  and  put  speech- 
es of  their  own  composition  in  the  mouths  of  the  lead- 
ing characters. 

In  connection  with  this  work  we  may  mention  his 
autobiography,  covering  chiefly  his  achievements  as 
commander-in-chief  in  Galilee  in  66. 

To  his  merit  be  it  further  said  he  gladly  became  the 
advocate  of  his  people  in  the  land  of  the  Gentile,  and 
jealously  guarded  their  reputation.  Against  the  tra- 
ducer,  Apion,  an  Egyptian  grammarian,  he  launched 
a  work  in  Israel's  defense,  "Josephus  Against  Apion," 
in  the  form  of  a  letter  to  a  friend.  It  is  in  two  books. 
In  the  first  he  replies  to  other  traducers  of  the  Jewish 
people.  For  the  bad  fashion  had  come  into  vogue  of 
inventing  absurd  slanders  against  the  Jews — a  fash- 
ion, by  the  way,  that  has  not  yet  passed  away.  This 
kind  of  work  is  called  an  Apology.  Further,  he  wrote 
a  monograph  on  "The  Martyrdom  of  the  Maccabees." 

His  works  are  couched  in  simple  and  attractive 
style.  Written  in  Greek,  they  have  been  translated 
into  all  tongues.  They  were  read  much  by  Christians 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  who  regarded  him  as  a  second 


126          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Livy;  but  till  recent  years  he  has  been  neglected  by 
his  own  people.     But  then  so  was  Philo. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

A  very  poor  Hebrew  rendering  was  made  of  the 
works  of  Josephus  and  was  styled  "Yosippon." 

Among  writers  in  defense  and  appreciation  of  the 
Jews  of  this  day  were  Alexander  Polyhistor,  Nicolaus 
of  Damascus  and  Strabo,  the  geographer. 


BOOK  III. 
THE  TALMUDIC  ERA 


JOCHANIN  BEN  ZAKKAI.  1 29 

CHAPTER    XXIV. 
JOCHANAN  BEN  ZAKKAI. 

Because  the  Jews  now  belonged  to  no  land,  therefore 
they  belonged  to  all  lands.  They  were  cosmopolitans, 
denizens,  if  not  citizens  of  the  world.  To  follow  their 
history  henceforth  we  shall  have  to  turn  to  all  the  set- 
tled parts  of  the  globe.  What  now  became  the  link 
to  hold  together  their  widely  scattered  members  and 
preserve  them  from  being  absorbed  by  their  surround- 
ings? Their  religion.  Religions  outlive  States  and 
spiritual  bonds  are  stronger  than  temporal.  But  now 
that  Judaism's  centre,  the  Temple,  was  no  more,  now 
that  the  sacred  capital,  Jerusalem,  where  according 
to  the  Law  they  could  alone  conduct  their  sacrificial 
worship  was  lost — how  could  they  preserve  theii 
continuity  and  what  would  become  of  their  priesthood  ? 
Just  here  will  we  witness  the  wonderful  adaptability  of 
Judaism  in  the  hands  of  this  deathless  race.  It  only 
awaited  a  genius  to  revive  the  Faith,  apparently  in  the 
throes  of  death,  and  to  endow  it  with  new  strength  and 
vitality.  The  hero  who  undertook  this  sacred  task  was 
named  JOCHANAN  BEN  ZAKKAI. 

Jochanan  ben  Zakkai  was  the  President  of  the  San- 
hedrin,  and  already  when  war  was  brewing,  became  the 
exponent  of  the  Peace  Party — for  he  saw  that  the  mad- 
ness of  the  Zealots  in  blindly  plunging  the  country  into 
war  could  only  end  in  ruin.  He  may  have  felt  too  that 
the  fulfillment  of  Israel's  mission  did  not  rely  on  na- 
tional independence  and  that  it  could  preach  its  mes- 


I3O          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

sage  in  a  way  other  than  in  bloody  conflict.  So  when 
the  war  was  at  its  height,  he  escaped  from  Jerusalem 
in  a  coffin,  since  the  Zealots  treated  all  peace  advocates 
as  traitors.  Welcomed  by  Vespasian,  who  saw  the 
value  of  so  influential  a  pleader  for  surrender,  he  was 
allowed  to  ask  a  favor.  His  reply  showed  that  he  was 
not  of  the  Josephus,  but  of  the  Jeremiah  type.  He 
asked  naught  for  himself,  but  pleaded  for  the  privilege 
of  establishing  an  ACADEMY,  where  the  principles 
of  Judaism  might  be  taught.  This  small  request  was 
granted,  perhaps  contemptuously  at  its  apparent  in- 
significance. Yet  by  that  grant  Judaism  was  enabled  to 
continue  its  development — aye,  to  outlive  the  great 
Roman  Empire  at  whose  mercy  it  now  stood. 

Jamnia  was  chosen,  a  place  near  the  Mediterranean 
and  not  far  from  Joppa.  Here  came  many  who,  being 
of  the  conciliatory  party,  were  left  free  and  untouched 
by  Rome  at  the  close  of  the  war.  Here  Jochanan  ben 
Zakkai  summoned  a  Sanhedrin  and  by  a  bold  stroke  de- 
cided to  continue  the  authoritative  powers  of  that  body 
in  spite  of  tradition  that  to  be  effective,  it  must  sit  in 
the  "hewn  stone  hall"  of  the  Jerusalem  Temple. 

But  he  took  a  more  daring  step  still.  According  to 
the  Law,  now  that  the  Holy  City  was  taken,  sacrifice 
was  no  longer  possible ;  therefore  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai 
declared  that  it  was  no  longer  indispensable;  saying, 
charity  is  a  substitute  for  sacrifice.  Prayer,  which  had 
so  far  only  been  regarded  as  an  accompaniment  to  sac- 
rifice was  now  treated  as  an  independent  mode  of  wor- 


JOCHANIN  BEN  ZAKKAI.  13! 

ship.  Thus  does  genius  adapt  itself  to  altered  condi- 
tions. 

The  change  was  revolutionary  and  marked  a  new  era 
in  Judaism's  development.  The  epoch  of  the  Priest 
was  over,  the  Altar  was  outlived — the  ideal  of  the 
Prophets  was  attained.  Again  necessity  was  the 
teacher  and  adversity  was  found  to  "have  a  jewel  in 
its  head."  Furthermore  the  creation  of  a  centre  of 
Jewish  authority  outside  of  Jerusalem  freed  Judaism 
from  bondage  to  a  particular  locality.  Its  jurisdiction 
was  now  confined  neither  within  municipal  nor  national 
confines.  The  whole  earth  could  become  its  legitimate 
home.  This  also  had  its  moral  value.  To  the  simple- 
minded  it  made  clearer  the  idea  that  God  was  manifest 
everywhere,  that  "the  heavens  was  verily  His  throne 
and  the  earth  His  footstool."  It  gave  tangible  appli- 
cation to  the  text,  "In  every  place  where  I  cause  my 
name  to  be  remembered,  I  will  come  unto  thee  and 
bless  thee." 

So  the  continuance  of  Judaism  after  the  overthrow 
of  the  Temple,  the  loss  of  the  sacred  capital  and  the 
Holy  Land,  after  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  through- 
out the  world,  made  it  more  manifest  that  it  was  in- 
deed a  universal  Faith.  Perhaps  then  even  in  this  sad 
tragedy  we  may  discern  the  hand  of  Providence. 

It  is  true  that  some  pious  souls  took  a  disconsolate 
view  of  the  outlook  and,  renouncing  the  world's  joys, 
gave  themselves  up  to  ascetic  lives  of  penitence.  A  few 
drifted  toward  the  new  Christian  sect  which  was  now 
severing  all  relation  with  Judaism,  thinking  it  doomed. 
But  under  the  guidance  of  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai  the 


132         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

great  majority  faced  the  future  more  hopefully  and 
more  bravely.  The  land  was  gone,  but  the  religion  was 
saved.  Henceforth  its  rallying  centre  was  to  be — not 
a  Temple,  but  a  Book. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  Scribes  interpreted 
the  Bible  in  a  way  to  derive  from  it  new  laws  to  meet 
new  needs.  These  deductions  grew  into  a  Second  Law, 
more  voluminous  than  the  first.  The  patient  evolving 
of  this  Law  to  meet  all  religious  social  and  economic 
requirements  of  their  altered  life  became  now  the  chief 
work  of  the  Jamnia  Academy  and  other  schools  that 
sprang  from  it.  To  this  work  of  laying  bare  "the 
whole  duty  of  man"  the  scholars  now  devoted  them- 
selves and  regarded  it  as  sacred  as  divine  worship. 
"The  study  of  the  Law,"  said  they,  "outweighs  all  vir- 
tues." The  first  order  of  these  great  expounders  were 
called  TANAIM,  which  means  teachers,  and  their  deci- 
sions were  called  HALACHATH.  Very  preciously  did 
the  students  who  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  sages  treasure 
the  Halachath  (for  they  were  contained  in  no  book) 
and  handed  them  down  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. 

The  people  at  large  now  learned  to  look  to  the  Jam- 
nian  Sanhedrin  as  their  authority  in  all  religious  duties 
and  for  guidance  in  varied  perplexities.  In  those  days 
there  was  no  fixed  calendar ;  the  new  month  was  ascer- 
tained by  watching  the  heavens  for  the  New  Moon,  and 
from  its  advent  the  Sanhedrin  decided  the  festivals  of 
each  month  for  the  community.  The  Ne^w  Moon  was 
announced  from  place  to  place  by  fire  signals  on  the 
hills.  These  could  not  reach  distant  places  outside  of 


JOCHANIN  BEN  ZAKKAI.  133 

Judea  and  in  some  cases  the  signals  were  tampered 
with.  So,  as  there  was  a  doubt  of  one  day  as  to  the 
New  Moon's  appearance,  they  introduced  the  custom 
of  observing  an  additional  day  of  each  festival. 

Jochanan  ben  Zakkai,  then,  revealed  his  greatness  in 
boldly  abrogating  institutions  that  had  lost  their  appli- 
cation with  the  Temple's  fall,  bridging  the  transition 
between  epochs  just  as  Samuel  had  done  in  his  day. 
His  great  personality  strengthened  the  union  between 
the  dispersed  Jews.  Further,  like  his  master  Hillel,  he 
combined  in  his  character  gentleness  and  firmness ;  and 
like  him,  too,  he  also  exercised  an  elevating  influence 
on  his  pupils  by  his  ethical  teachings.  He  showed 
them  how  to  search  the  Scriptures,  to  discover  its  no- 
blest lessons.  This  was  distinct  from  that  branch  of 
Bible  study  already  referred  to,  enabling  the  student  to 
evolve  new  rules  and  new  observances.  The  latter  was 
judicial,  the  former  homiletic.  These  gradually  came 
to  form  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  scholarly  activ- 
ities of  the  Rabbis,  the  judicial  division  called  Halacha 
(legal  decision),  the  ethical  styled  AGADA,  which  really 
means  narrative — for  many  a  story,  anecdote,  moral 
maxim  or  bit  of  history  would  be  brought  in  to  illus- 
trate a  legal  point  or  to  relieve  the  tension  of  argu- 
ment by  a  pleasing  diversion.  So  Agada  meant  much 
miscellaneous  material  and  included  everything  not 
strictly  judicial. 

Here  are  some  of  the  maxims  of  Jochanan  ben  Zak- 
kai : 

"Fear  God  as  much  as  you  fear  man."  Try  and  think 
all  that  is  implied  in  this  admonition. 


134        A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

"No  iron  tool  was  to  be  used  on  the  altar,  suggesting 
that  religion's  mission  is  peace." 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

The  pupil  has  already  been  made  familiar  with  the 
prophetic  views  on  sacrifice  (see  People  of  the  Book, 
vol.  III).  Here  follow  some  of  the  advanced  opinions 
of  the  Rabbis: 

"The  humble-minded  is  considered  by  God  to 
have  offered  all  the  sacrifices,  for  it  is  said  that 
the  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit." 

"Acts  of  justice  are  more  meritorious  than  all 
the  sacrifices.     Unless  the  mind  is  purified,  the 
sacrifice  is  useless;  it  may  be  thrown  to  the  dogs." 
"He  who  engages  in  the  study  of  the  Law,  re- 
quires neither  burnt  offering  nor  meal  offering." 
"A  day  in  thy  courts  is  better  than  a  thousand." 
Psalm    Ixxiv.    is    thus    explained :    God  said    to 
David,  "I  prefer  thy  sitting  and  studying  before 
me  to  the  thousands  of  burnt  offerings  which  thy 
son  Solomon  will  offer  on  the  altar." 

"He  who  prays  is  considered  as  pious  as  if  he 

had  built  an  altar  and  offered  sacrifices  upon  it." 

"As  the  Altar  wrought  atonement  during  the 

time  of  the  Temple,  so  after  its  destruction,  the 

Table." 

With  the  abolition  of  sacrifice  the  Paschal  Lamb  was 
indicated  only  in  a  symbolic  way  on  the  Passover  table. 


THE  PALESTINIAN  ACADEMIES.  135 

CHAPTER    XXV. 

THE  PALESTINIAN  ACADEMIES. 

Jamnia  was  the  first  of  many  Palestinian  schools; 
one  was  located  at  Sepphoris,  another  at  Tiberias,  both 
in  Galilee;  another  at  Lydda  in  the  south,  not  far  from 
the  Mediterranean.  So  the  good  work  grew,  and  under 
sadder  auspices  the  thread  of  life  was  taken  up  again. 
A  new  royalty,  so  to  speak,  was  created  in  Israel.  The 
first  literal  royalty  of  the  House  of  Judah  had  been 
overthrown  by  Babylon  seven  hundred  years  earlier. 
After  the  Restoration,  the  Priests  became  the  monarchs 
of  the  State,  exercising  regal  powers.  Now  in  the  Dis- 
persion the  Teacher  was  King.  Indeed  he  was  called 
a  Prince  (NASI). 

He  was  the  head  of  the  Academy,  whose  sway  was 
voluntarily  yet  gladly  accepted  in  matters  both  re- 
ligious and  civil  (as  far  as  the  management  of  inter- 
nal affairs  was  granted)  by  the  congregations  formed 
in  Rome,  Babylonia,  Greece,  Egypt  and  the  Parthian 
lands. 

The  first  Nasi  or  Patriarch  at  Jamnia  was  Rabbi 
Gamaliel  II.,  of  the  family  of  Hillel,  for  Jochanan  ben 
Zakkai  had  held  a  position  sui  generis  demanded  by 
the  exigencies  of  the  time.  But  it  was  the  wish  of  all 
that  the  official  office  should  remain  in  the  House  of 
Hillel. 

Gamaliel  was  so  conscientious  that  in  farming  his 


136          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

estate  he  would  take  no  interest.  He  showed  both  as- 
tronomical and  mathematical  knowledge  in  the  regula- 
tion of  the  Jewish  calendar.  He  was  a  stern  man,  but 
these  troublous  times  needed  a  firm  hand,  religiously 
as  well  as  politically,  for  it  was  a  period  of  unrest; 
the  air  was  full  of  schemes  and  fantastic  notions.  Even 
so,  he  was  perhaps  too  severe,  and  for  a  brief  period 
during  his  thirty  years  of  Patriarchate,  he  was  actually 
impeached.  One  indication  of  his  severity  was  his  fre- 
quent imposition  of  Nidui- — excommunication.  The 
person  so  condemned  had  to  stand  aloof  from  the  com- 
munity and  live  as  one  in  mourning.  He  was  ostracised 
until  the  ban  was  removed. 

As  in  the  days  when  the  Temple  stood,  there  were 
still  two  parties — not  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  now,  but 
Hillelites  and  Shammaites.  In  most  instances  the  de- 
cisions of  the  School  of  Hillel,  the  more  liberal  party, 
prevailed.  Rabbi  Gamaliel,  however,  endeavored  to 
place  himself  above  party,  as  the  leader  should. 

The  following  incidents  will  show  the  temper  of 
these  Jewish  scholars :  One  Akabiah  ben  Mahalallel 
was  asked  to  recede  from  a  particular  decision.  It 
was  even  intimated  by  some  that  if  he  would  yield,  he 
would  be  made  Ab  Beth  Din  (Vice-President,  next  in 
order  to  the  Nasi).  To  this  suggestion  he  answered, 
"I  would  rather  be  a  fool  all  my  life  than  a  rogue  for 
one  hour."  Is  not  that  magnificent  ?  Living  aloof  and 
asked  by  his  son  for  a  letter  of  recommendation  to  his 


THE  PALESTINIAN  ACADEMIES.  137 

colleagues,  the  stern  father  refused.  "Thy  own  works 
must  recommend  thee." 

Another  famous  teacher  was  Eliezer  ben  Hyrcanus, 
who  opened  the  school  at  Lydda.  His  weakness  lay 
in  the  fact  that  he  would  never  trust  his  own  judg- 
ment to  deduce  a  rule.  He  accepted  and  taught  only 
what  he  had  learned  on  the  authority  of  his  teachers. 
That  type  of  man  has  its  value  in  the  world  and  is  like 
the  priest  who  treasures  past  traditions.  But  we  need 
originators  too  who  boldly  open  up  new  highways; 
for  if  we  mistrusted  our  own  powers  altogether  and 
walked  only  in  the  old  paths,  knowledge  would  not 
grow  and  the  world  would  not  advance. 

In  contrast,  let  us  single  out  a  more  Interesting  fig- 
ure, a  man  who  left  his  impress  on  his  age — Rabbi 
JOSHUA  BEN  HAN  AN!  AH.  Broad,  versatile  and  gifted, 
he  as  a  youth  had  been  a  chorister  in  the  Temple,  now 
laid  waste.  Like  a  true  genius,  he  broke  through  many 
of  the  disadvantages  that  handicapped  him  and  became 
one  of  the  Tanaim  and  the  founder  of  a  new  academy 
at  Bekiim.  He  was  miserably  poor  and  eked  out  a 
scanty  existence  as  a  needle-maker.  For  these  great 
teachers  received  no  emolument  for  their  labors  in  the 
religious  Academy.  It  was  a  service  of  love.  They 
followed  the  principle  laid  down  by  Rabbi  Zadoc,  "Do 
not  use  the  Law  as  a  crown  to  shine  therewith  or  a 
spade  to  dig  therewith."  Rabbi  Joshua  was,  however, 
so  severely  plain  that  a  Roman  Emperor's  daughter, 
combining  at  once  a  compliment  and  an  insult,  asked 


138        A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

why  so  much  wisdom  should  be  deposited  in  so  homely 
a  vessel.  Tradition  says  he  advised  her  to  put  her 
father's  wine  in  golden  jars  with  a  lamentable  result, 
to  prove  that  good  wisdom,  like  good  wine,  may  be 
best  preserved  in  plain  receptacles. 

Rabbi  Joshua  lacked  the  presumed  advantage  of 
many  of  the  scholars  in  not  belonging  to  the  Jewish 
aristocracy;  he  was  a  man  of  the  "common  people." 
Yet  that  ultimately  became  to  him  a  source  of  power 
as,  being  closer  to  the  masses,  he  was  the  better  able 
to  influence  them,  and  he  helped  to  bring  the  upper  and 
lower  classes  of  society  closer  together.  By  his 
gentleness  and  moderation  he  prevented  many  a  split 
in  Judaism  that  often  threatened  when  divergence  of 
view  reached  the  danger  point. 

Although,  like  Gamaliel,  a  great  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  he  was  modest  and  obedient  and  submitted 
to  a  humiliating  ordeal  imposed  by  the  stern  Nasi  be- 
cause of  a  mistaken  calculation  as  to  the  date  of  a  fes- 
tival. Such  example  by  a  great  teacher  was  most  bene- 
ficial on  the  people  at  large. 

Very  valuable  to  the  cause  too  was  his  shrewd  com- 
mon sense  that  exposed  the  folly  of  extreme  and  fan- 
tastic views.  "The  Law,"  said  he,  "was  not  revealed 
to  angels  but  to  human  beings."  Some  misguided 
pietists  would  not  partake  of  wine  or  meat  because, 
now  that  the  Temple  had  fallen,  they  could  not  be 
offered  on  its  altar.  "Why  not,"  said  he,  "abstain  also 
from  bread  and  water  since  they  too  were  used  in  the 


THE  PALESTINIAN  ACADEMIES. 


139 


sacrificial  service?"  Nothing  like  ridicule  at  times  to 
explode  fallacies.  "••^.:l 

Most  important  perhaps  of  all  his  service  was  his  en- 
deavor to  close  the  breach  between  Israel  and  the 
Romans,  which  the  unforgiving  Shammaites  would 
have  widened.  He  advised  a  graceful  submission  to  the 
inevitable.  In  consequence  he  enjoyed  the  confidence 
of  the  Roman  rulers.  Like  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai,  he 
turned  out  to  be  the  man  of  the  hour ;  and  when  a  little 
later  Israel  again  sailed  into  stormy  seas,  he  was  called 
to  the  helm.  ...„; 

Rabbi  Ishmael  ben  Elisha  deserves  a  brief  mention  as 
one  of  the  great  Tanaim  of  this  age  who,  avoiding 
strained  interpretation,  explained  the  Law  with  logical 
common-sense.  He  gladly  devoted  his  wealth  to  the 
maintenance  of  girls  orphaned  by  the  war.  He  too 
founded  a  School  and  was  destined,  alas,  to  die  a  mar- 
tyr's death. 

These  men  assured  the  continuity  of  their  holy  work 
by  training  students  in  the  exploration  of  the  Law  and 
transmitting  to  them  the  Halachath  (decisions)  that 
they  thus  far  deduced.  Declared  proficient,  they  or- 
dained them  as  sages  by  the  ceremony  of  Semicha 
("laying  on  of  hands").  This  gave  them  right  of  mem- 
bership in  the  Sanhedrin  and  certain  judicial  functions 
and  also  the  title  of  RABBI,  introduced  after  the  Tem- 
ple's fall  of  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai. 

Outside  of  Judea — in  the  Diaspora — schools  were  al- 
so being  established  in  Babylon,  Parthia,  Asia  Minor 


14O         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

and  Egypt.  In  Alexandria  a  modest  academy  replaced 
the  pretentious  Temple  of  happier  days.  But  all  turned 
to  Jamnia  where  the  Sanhedrin  met  as  the  centre  of 
religious  authority.  It  was  for  the  time  being  their 
spiritual  capital.  To  the  presiding  Nasi,  Rome  granted 
some  civil  jurisdiction  in  the  administration  of  inter- 
nal Jewish  affairs.  So  the  Sanhedrin  was  still  quite  a 
House  of  Legislature  in  its  way. 

Here  were  regulated  the  institutions  of  Judaism 
and  here  was  now  more  completely  formulated  the 
RITUAL  OF  PRAYER  already  inaugurated  in  the  Syna- 
gogues while  the  Temple  stood.  Here  is  its  outline. 

The  Shema  ("Hear,  O  Israel")  was  the  centre  of 
the  first  division  of  the  service.  It  was  preceded  by 
two  benedictions,  the  first  expressing  God's  providence 
seen  in  Nature,  suitably  varied  for  morning  and  even- 
ing service;  the  second  God's  love  for  Israel  manifested 
in  the  bestowal  of  the  Law.  The  Shema  was  followed  by 
another  benediction  voicing  gratitude  for  divine  re- 
demption. The  second  division  of  the  service  was  the 
Prayer  proper  (Tefillah),  containing  a  set  form  of 
praises  at  the  opening  and  close,  with  the  central  part 
movable  to  fit  the  different  occasions  of  week-days, 
Sabbath  and  Holy  Days.  The  third  section  of  the 
service  was  the  reading  from  the  Pentateuch  and  the 
Prophets. 

The  Reader  was  no  special  functionary,  but  any 
Israelite  could  "stand  before  the  Ark"  where  the  scrolls 
were  placed  and  read  the  service.  Here  again  pre- 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  14! 

vailed  the  idea  that  religious  service  was  not  to  be 
paid  for.  Prayer  for  the  restoration  of  Land  and 
Temple  was  a  fixed  feature  of  every  service.  Perpet- 
ually to  commemorate  the  Temple's  loss  by  outward 
signs  became  a  duty  in  which  patriotism  and  religion 
were  blended.  The  fasts  instituted  in  Babylon  for  the 
fall  of  the  first  Temple  were  reinstituted  now  to  com- 
memorate the  downfall  of  the  second. 

As  may  be  well  understood,  a  long  and  disastrous 
war  had  demoralized  the  masses,  especially  the  coun- 
try folk.  The  educated  classes  rather  held  aloof  from 
the  Am'Haaretz  (the  ignorant  masses).  This  is  rather 
surprising  on  the  part  of  the  scholars,  otherwise  so 
conscientious  and  so  benevolent.  But  the  times  were 
rude  and  ignorance  usually  went  hand  in  hand  with 
many  evil  practises. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

In  the  meantime  the  new  religion  that  had  sprung 
from  Judaism  was  entering  its  second  stage  of  develop- 
ment. We  have  seen  how  the  mixture  of  pagan  ideas 
tended  to  separate  Jews  from  Christians  theologically, 
We  will  now  see  how  the  trend  of  events  tended  to 
separate  them  socially.  There  were  still  two  Christ- 


142         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

ian  sects — the  pagan  Christians  to  whom  Jesus  was  th« 
Son  of  God,  whose  blood  shed  on  the  cross  was  an 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  mankind  and  whose  coming 
abrogated  the  Law.  These  Gentile  Christians  were 
called  Hellenists,  as  most  of  them  were  first  Greeks. 
These  naturally  had  small  sympathy  with  the  Jews 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the  lofty  morality  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  that  formed  the  backbone  of  the 
new  Faith. 

On  the  other  hand  there  were  the  Jewish  Christ- 
ians, who  zealously  remained  Jews  in  all  but  the  be- 
lief that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  Messiah,  that  he 
had  risen  from  the  grave  and  would  come  a  second 
time  to  gratify  the  hopes  not  fulfilled  in  his  first  ad- 
vent. They  also  fostered  the  belief  that  they  could 
cure  by  miracles  and  drive  out  demons  by  declaration 
of  a  formula  of  their  faith ;  for  Jesus  had  also  believed 
in  this  power  of  exorcism.  They  still  maintained  to  a 
degree  the  customs  of  the  Essenes,  from  which  body, 
perhaps  they  had  first  sprung, — particularly  the  duty 
of  voluntary  poverty.  Indeed,  the  Sanhedrin  seriously 
considered  whether  they  might  not  be  regarded  as  Jews. 

But  when  Judaism  and  Jews  became  discredited 
through  loss  of  land  and  Temple  and  the  latter  were 
taxed  for  the  privilege  of  remaining  lojal  to  the  for- 
mer (Fiscus  Judaicus),  these  Jewish  Christians  be- 
gan to  drift  away  from  people  who  had  lost  power  and 
status  in  the  world,  and  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  con- 
trolling majority.  Such  is  the  way  of  the  world.  Fur- 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  143 

thermore,  some  of  the  Jewish  country  folk,  losing  faith 
in  the  validity  of  Judaism  through  the  loss  of  its  Tem- 
ple, were  attracted  to  Christianity  with  its  new  scheme 
of  salvation,  in  which  Jesus  took  the  place  which  they 
?md  lost  in  the  altar  of  sacrifice.  So  the  loss  of  the 
Temple  with  its  priestly  service  had  much  to  do  with 
the  spread  of  Christianity. 

Although  great  bitterness  at  first  existed  between  the 
two  Christian  sects,  the  pagan  branch  soon  absorbed 
the  Jewish  branch  and  all  too  soon  the  Christians 
"knew  not  Joseph."  For  the  antagonism  of  Gentile 
against  Jew  was  now  transmitted  to  the  new  church 
and,  sad  to  say,  it  became  a  more  bitter  persecutor  of 
the  people  from  which  Jesus  and  Paul  had  sprung  than 
most  of  the  heathen  nations  had  been. 

New  ceremonials  grew  up  in  the  new  Faith.  Pass- 
over was  made  a  sacrificial  service,  the  unleavened 
bn?nd  and  wine  supposed  to  be  transformed  in  some 
mystic  way  into  the  flesh  and  blood  of  the  Saviour  (as 
Jesu*  was  styled).  Many  Roman  rites  and  symbols 
were  consciously  or  unconsciously  taken  up  by  the  new 
creed  in  the  first  few  centuries  of  its  foundation;  for 
it  grew  less  and  less  Jewish  as  the  years  went  on.  De- 
preciation of  Judaism  became  now  the  accustomed 
tactics  <^f  the  Church  Fathers,  for  Christianity's  justi- 
fication depended  in  some  respects  on  the  theory  of 
Judaism's  insufficiency.  This  unfortunate  spirit  of  an- 
tagonism we  find  in  parts  of  the  Christian  Scriptures 
that  mar  the  many  beautiful  and  humane  teachings 


144         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

they  contain.  These  Scriptures  were  known  as  the 
New  Testament,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Jewish 
Scriptures  which  was  called  the  Old  Testament,  as 
though  the  Testament  or  covenant  between  God  and 
Israel,  there  recorded,  was  now  obsolete  and  super- 
seded by  a  "New"  covenant  in  which,  as  already  ex- 
plained, Jesus  the  Messiah  (Christ),  the  Son  of  God 
took  the  place  of  the  Law.  Many  passages  from  the 
Hebrew  Prophets  were  retranslated,  to  fit  the  impres- 
sion that  they  had  really  foretold  the  coming  of  Jesus 
and  the  events  of  his  life.  The  whole  Hebrew  Bible 
in  fact  was  treated  as  but  a  preparation  for  Christian- 
ity's grand  climax.  Even  the  history  of  Israel  was 
regarded  as  but  an  allegorical  picture  of  the  life  of  the 
Nazarine. 

We  cannot  pass  this  period  of  religious  upheaval 
without  a  word  about  certain  strange  sects  neither 
wholly  Jewish,  Christian  or  pagan,  but  something  of 
all,  that  arose  at  this  time.  They  were  for  the  most 
part  called  Gnostics,  from  the  Greek  "Know,"  claiming 
to  obtain  through  weird  processes  a  clearer  knowledge 
of  God.  Ver  yfantastic  were  the  views  of  some  on  the 
problems  of  life  and  sin.  Some  of  the  sects  were  led 
into  all  sorts  of  absurdities  and  excesses.  A  few  Jews 
were  seduced  by  these  fascinating  heresies,  notably  one 
Elisha  ben  Abuyah,  learned  in  the  Law  though  he  was. 
Having  left  the  fold,  he  became  a  persecutor  of  his  peo- 
ple. The  Rabbis  only  accounted  for  the  sad  change 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  145 

by  a  complete  revolution  in  his  nature — so  they  called 
him  Acher,  "another  man." 

The  Sanhedrin  found  it  wise  to  prohibit  the  read- 
ing of  such  mystic  literature  that  would  tend  to  seduce 
youth  from  the  sound  and  healthy  teachings  of  Juda- 
ism. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

For  an  elucidating  picture  of  the  compromise  of 
paganism  with  Christianity  by  a  Christian  writer, 
read  Is  Catholicism  a  Baptised  Paganism?  by  Rev, 
Heber  Newton,  in  the  Forum  Magazine;  New  York, 
1890. 

The  book  chiefly  made  use  of  by  Christian  apologists 
for  the  interpretation  of  Christianity  between  its  lines 
is  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  particularly  its  fifty-third  chap- 
ter, though  modern  Christian  critics  altogether  abandon 
this  old  method  of  biblical  exigesis.  See  Skinner's 
Isaiah,  Cambridge  Bible,  for  good  translation  and  ex- 
planation of  Isaiah,  viii.,  ix.,  and  liii.  Also  Monte- 
fiore's  Bible  for  Home  Reading,  both  vols. 


146        A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER     XXVII. 
ROME'S  REGIME  AFTER  JUDEA'S  OVERTHROW. 

A.  C.  E. 

Vespasian 68 

Titus 79 

Domitian 81 

Nerva % 

Trajan 98 

Hadrian 117 

Antoninus  Pius 138 

The  Emperor  Vespasian  who  had  permitted  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Jamnian  Academy,  though  he  had  also 
imposed  the  Fiscus  Judaicus,  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Titus.  Titus  lived  too  briefly  after  he  became  Emperor 
to  exert  a  decided  influence  on  Israel,  but  they  could 
never  forget  that  to  his  hand  had  been  entrusted  the 
final  overthrow  of  Judea.  His  brother  Domitian,  how- 
ever, the  next  Emperor,  was  a  tyrant  and  a  degenerate. 
The  Jewish  tax  was  collected  with  needless  cruelty 
and  indignity.  He  bitterly  persecuted  those  Romans 
who,  in  spite  of  Israel's  fallen  fortunes,  were  still 
drawn  to  its  Faith.  Proselytes  came  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  make  the  subject  an  important  theme  of 
discussion  in  the  Jewish  Academy.  It  was  probably  in 
Rome  itself  where  the  spread  of  Judaism  most  alarmed 
the  Emperor.  Perhaps  its  teachings  reached  the  Ro- 
mans through  the  Jewish  prisoners  of  war.  Certainly 
many  high  born  Romans  were  enthusiastically  prepared 
to  make  sacrifices  for  its  cause.  It  is  said  that  even 
Flavius  Clemens  and  his  wife,  Flavia  Domitilla,  re- 


ROME'S  REGIME  AFTER  JUDEA'S  OVERTHROW      147 

latives  of  Domitian  and  possible  heirs  to  the  throne, 
were  pledged  to  Judaism.  Clemens  was  put  to  death 
in  the  year  95,  and  his  wife  was  exiled.  But  a  step 
— and  Judaism  might  have  mounted  the  imperial 
throne  of  Rome  and  have  exchanged  destinies  with 
Christianity.  That  is  one  of  the  might-have-beens  of 
history. 

One  of  the  most  famous  proselytes  was  Aquila,  a 
Greek  of  scholarship  and  wealth.  Dissatisfied  with  the 
later  Greek  translations  of  the  Bible,  distorted  to  fit 
Christian  doctrine,  Aquila  made  a  literal  translation 
from  the  Hebrew  that  so  commended  itself  to  the  Rab- 
bis that  it  became  the  "authorized  version,"  so  to  speak, 
for  the  Synagogue.  An  Aramaic  translation  of  the 
Bible,  following  his  model,  was  called  after  him  Tar- 
gum  Onkeles — which  means  "a  translation  like  that 
of  Aquila."  It  is  often  printed  with  the  Hebrew  texts 
of  Scripture  today.  Remember,  Aramaic  was  the 
language  spoken  by  most  Jews  of  the  East  at  this  time. 

It  was  the  unhappy  fate  of  Israel  that  the  mischiev- 
ous Domitian  (who,  it  is  even  said  at  one  time  contem- 
plated the  extermination  of  the  Jews,)  should  have 
reigned  so  long  and  that  the  good  Emperor  Nerva,  his 
successor,  should  have  reigned  so  briefly.  So  although 
the  injunctions  against  proselytes  were  removed  during 
the  sixteen  months  of  Nerva's  rule,  as  soon  as  Trajan 
came  to  the  throne  many  anti-Jewish  laws  were  re- 
stored. Like  Alexander  the  Greek,  Trajan  cherished 
the  wild  desire  of  conquering  Asia.  When  he  attacked 


148         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Parthia,  the  Jews  living  in  semi-independence  there 
became  his  most  vigorous  opponents.  In  Babylon  they 
stubbornly  held  the  city  of  Nisibis  against  his  legions. 
No  sooner  had  he  subdued  the  lands  on  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris,  than  the  Persian  provinces  revolted. 
All  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora  now  seized  the  occa- 
sion to  throw  off  the  hated  Roman  yoke.  For  they  had 
never  been  reconciled  to  it  and  their  children,  now 
grown  to  manhood,  had  been  brought  up  in  the  assur- 
ance that  soon  Judea  would  be  won  back  again,  and 
the  Temple  rebuilt.  In  Egypt,  in  Cyprus,  a  Mediter- 
ranean island,  and  in  Cyrene,  further  west  on  the 
African  coast — they  rose  against  their  opponents.  At 
first  success  came  to  their  arms  and  much  blood  flowed 
on  both  sides ;  but  there  could  be  no  doubt  of  the  ulti- 
mate outcome  with  Rome's  overwhelming  numbers.  So 
vigorous  was  their  resistance  that  the  historian  Graetz 
ventures  to  think  that,  in  spite  of  lacking  cavalry  and 
being  indifferently  armed,  had  these  three  separate 
Jewish  uprisings  been  organized  under  one  directing 
control,  it  would  have  gone  hard  with  the  Roman  le- 
gions. As  it  was,  their  beautiful  Synagogue  in  Alex- 
andria was  destroyed,  all  the  Jewish  inhabitants  of 
Cyprus  were  slain,  and  the  island  forbidden  them  in 
the  future.  Many  lives  were  lost  in  other  places  of 
Jewish  insurrection,  including  Judea  itself.  The  revolt 
certainly  nipped  in  the  bud  Trajan's  foolish  ambition 
to  conquer  all  Asia,  and  he  died  in  mortification  at 
his  failure. 


ROME  S  REGIME  AFTER  JUDEA  S  OVERTHROW         149 

Gamaliel  was  dead  and  Rabbi  Joshua  was  Patriarch. 
The  reins  of  power  could  not  have  been  entrusted  to 
wiser  hands,  for  he  seized  the  moment  of  the  acces- 
sion of  the  new  Emperor  Hadrian  to  council  concilia- 
tion. Like  Jochanan  ben  Zakkai,  he  saw  the  futility 
of  Israel  wasting  its  strength  in  fighting  with  colossal 
Rome.  The  Sanhedrin  was  removed  from  Jamnia  to 
Oosha  in  upper  Galilee.  Joshua's  sway  was  less  rigor- 
ous than  that  of  Gamaliel.  At  a  time  when  many  of 
his  brethren  felt  nothing  but  hatred  toward  the 
heathen,  he  uttered  the  famous  dictum :  "The  virtuous 
of  all  peoples  have  a  share  in  the  heavenly  bliss  of  the 
life  to  come." 

The  new  Emperor  also  seemed  at  first  inclined  to  a 
policy  of  concession;  but  there  was  little  choice,  for 
revolt  burst  out  in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  from  Asia 
Minor  in  the  East  to  Britain  in  the  far  West.  The 
discouraged  Emperor  gladly  met  many  of  his  enemies 
half  way.  Parthia  was  restored  to  the  control  of  its 
own  princes.  In  Judea  proper  a  cruel  general,  Quietus, 
was  stopped  in  his  terrible  purpose  of  exterminating 
the  Jews  and  was  ultimately  executed. 

To  win  peace  and  adherents,  he  was  willing  to  make 
many  fair  promises  at  the  opening  of  his  reign  that  he 
had  no  serious  intention  of  fulfilling.  One  of  these  was 
an  offer  to  the  Jews  to  rebuild  their  Temple,  which 
they  had  exacted  as  the  condition  of  laying  down  their 
arms.  Imagine  the  boundless  joy  with  which  this  news 
was  received — a  Cyrus  come  to  power  once  more!  He- 


1 50        A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

brew  poets  sang  of  the  glories  that  were  to  come, 
Christians  and  Samaritans  were  much  disconcerted  at 
the  news. 

But  as  soon  as  Hadrian  had  obtained  the  mastery  of 
the  situation  and  quiet  was  restored,  he  resorted  to 
subterfuge.  They  might  rebuild  their  Temple,  but 
not  in  the  same  place.  He  knew  it  was  that  place  or 
none.  The  Jews  saw  through  the  pretense;  their  hopes 
were  blasted.  There  was  talk  of  war  again,  but  the 
wise  Rabbi  Joshua  still  councilled  submission.  So  for 
many  years  the  embers  of  revolt  slumbered  in  the 
breasts  of  the  Jews,  but  did  not  die  out,  though  as  long 
as  Rabbi  Joshua  lived  they  did  not  break  into  flame. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

AKIBA. 

The  man  who  now  came  to  the  fore  was  of  a  differ- 
ent mould — the  famous  Rabbi  AKIBA.  Many  a  pretty 
legend  is  woven  around  his  life.  Have  you  ever  real- 
ized that  it  is  only  around  great  men  that  legends  grow  ? 
Imagination  does  not  seek  to  picture  incidents  in  the 
lives  of  the  commonplace.  Not  only  poor,  but  ignor- 
ant, he  despised  scholars  and  scholarship.  Like  the 
great  Lawgiver,  he  served  as  a  humble  shepherd  the 
rich  Kalba  Sabua.  One  day,  so  runs  the  story,  he  met 
the  beautiful  daughter  of  his  master  and  fell  in  love 


AKIBA.  151 

with  her.  Angry  at  her  attachment  for  this  boor, 
Kalba  disinherited  his  daughter,  Rachel.  But  her 
sweet  self-sacrifice  in  sharing  poverty  with  him  rather 
than  wealth  without  him,  roused  the  noblest  qualities 
dormant  in  Akiba's  nature.  She  was  determined  to 
bear  yet  further  privation  that  he  might  become  a 
scholar  in  the  Law.  For  it  was  to  his  ignorance,  rather 
than  to  his  poverty,  that  the  father  had  objected. 
Among  no  people  was  illiteracy  so  great  a  disgrace  as 
among  the  Jews,  and  among  no  people  did  learning 
simply,  confer  so  much  honor.  So  at  her  urgency,  he 
reluctantly  left  his  home  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  the  Ra1> 
bis  of  the  Schools.  A  wonderful  pupil  he  became,  for 
he  had  the  gift  of  enthusiasm.  But  while  he  was  win^ 
ning  renown  at  the  Academy,  she,  alone  and  at  a  dis- 
tance, was  battling  with  poverty,  at  one  time  having  to 
sell  her  hair  to  buy  food  for  her  child.  But  still  the 
self-sacrificing  woman  would  not  permit  his  return. 

One  day  it  was  announced  in  the  village  in  which  she 
lived  that  the  great  scholar,  Rabbi  Akiba,  was  about 
to  visit  it.  He  came  surrounded  by  many  disciples, 
and  as  the  crowd  of  admirers  gathered  about  him,  they 
pushed  aside  a  poorly  clad  woman  who  tried  to  reach 
his  side.  But  espying  her,  he  parted  the  crowd  and 
caught  her  in  his  arms.  To  the  astonished  specta- 
tors he  declared,  "All  that  I  know  I  owe  to  her,  for 
she  was  my  inspiration." 

So  far  the  romantic  side  of  his  life.  On  its  literary 
side  he  was  a  great  Tana,  and  famous  scholars  came 


J52         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

from  his  School.  His  method  of  interpreting  new  Law 
from  old  was  based  on  the  theory  that  no  word  or 
particle  in  the  Pentateuch  was  redundant  and  must 
therefore  have  some  hidden  significance.  On  such  a 
principle  there  was  no  end  of  the  possible  deductions 
from  Scripture.  Yet  the  Rabbis  were  too  earnest  and 
too  conscientious  to  knowingly  abuse  it.  He  certainly 
gave  them  a  free  hand  in  devising  regulations  to  meet 
the  complex  needs  of  later  times.  So  the  theory 
worked  in  the  interest  of  progress.  The  institution  of 
this  method  has  earned  for  Akiba  the  title  of  "father 
of  Rabbinic  Judaism." 

He  further  gave  an  impetus  to  the  classification  of 
the  Halachath,  already  begun  before  his  day.  This 
classification  of  the  Oral  Law  was  called  Mishna,  or 
Second  Law,  of  which  we  shall  hear  more  later  on. 

He  too  had  a  voice  in  fixing  the  canon  of  Scripture. 

Here  follow  some  of  his  sayings: 

"How  favored  is  man  for  he  was  created  in  the 
Image"  [of  God]. 

"Everything  is  foreseen,  yet  freedom  of  will  is 
given  to  man." 

There  is  also  ascribed  to  him  on  doubtful  authority 
the  maxim,  "Whatever  God  doeth  He  doeth  for  the 
best." 

There  was  a  wonderful  fascination  about  the  man 
that  attracted  hundreds  of  students  to  him — tradition 
says  thousands.  That  was  in  part  due  to  his  unbounded 


AKIBA.  153 

faith.  Instance  of  this  faith  is  illustrated  in  his  visit 
to  Rome,  with  some  of  his  colleagues  to  intercede  with 
Domitian  on  behalf  of  his  people.  They  burst  into 
tears  at  beholding  Rome's  splendor  and  mentally  con- 
trasting it  with  Jerusalem's  desolation.  He  met  their 
tears  with  a  hopeful  smile — "The  present  ruined  con- 
dition of  our  beloved  land,  foretold  by  the  Prophets, 
only  assures  me  of  the  fulfillment  of  the  brighter  proph- 
ecies of  our  ultimate  triumph." 

Alas,  even  faith  may  have  its  drawbacks!  Akiba's 
deep  conviction  that  the  restoration  of  Judea's  inde- 
pendence was  at  hand,  to  be  effected  by  the  advent  of 
the  Messiah,  induced  him  to  encourage  the  revolt  that 
was  quietly  but  steadily  spreading  among  his  disaffect- 
ed brethren. 

Hadrian,  little  understanding  the  spirit  of  this  peo- 
ple reported  to  the  Senate  after  making  a  circuit 
through  the  Roman  provinces,  that  all  was  peace.  He 
was  both  foolish  and  cruel  enough  to  display  his  ab- 
solute power  and  Israel's  complete  subjection,  not  only 
by  withdrawing  permission  to  rebuild  the  Jewish 
Temple,  but  by  ordering  a  heathen  shrine  to  be  reared 
on  its  site,  thus  completely  to  paganize  Jerusalem. 

This  was  the  last  straw.  The  aged  Rabbi  Joshua 
went  to  implore  the  Emperor  to  desist  from  this  wanton 
project,  but  in  vain.  It  was  one  of  the  last  acts  of  the 
Patriarch's  life.  Like  Antiochus  of  old,  Hadrian  wish- 
ed to  obliterate  Judaism — and  Christianity  too  for  that 


154         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

matter, — and  make  the  idolatrous  worship  of  Serapis 
universal. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

For  a  critical  study  of  the  life  and  work  of  Akiba, 
read  the  article,  "Akiba  ben  Joseph"  in  Jewish  En- 
cyclopedia, Vol.  I. 

Massorah  is  the  technical  term  for  the  traditional 
Scripture  text  handed  down  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Synagogue,  which  has  been  thus  preserved  intact  in 
these  scrupulous  and  reverent  hands.  See  article, 
Massorah,  Isidor  Harris,  Jeu'ish  Quarterly  Review, 
Vol.  I. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

LAST  STRUGGLE  FOR  LIBERTY. 

Preparations  for  rebellion  had  been  carefully  plan- 
Red  for  some  years.  Arms  had  been  stored  in  caves. 
Akiba  was  the  inspiration  of  the  revolt,  its  Deborah, 
let  us  say.  But  who  was  to  be  its  Barak?  The  times 
created  the  man.  A  hero  appeared  to  lead  the  forces 
of  Israel  whom  the  multitude  in  admiration  called  BAR 
COCHBA  (Son  of  a  Star).  This  title  was  suggested 
by  the  name  of  his  birthplace,  Koziba,  but  partly  also 
because  he  was  regarded  by  the  enthusiasts  as  the  long 
looked  for  Messiah.  This  man  of  colossal  strength 
and  strategic  resources  was  going  to  make  Rome  feel 


LAST   STRUGGLE   FOR   LIBERTY.  155 

the  power  of  a  scorned  people.  Reinforcements  came 
fast  to  the  banner  of  the  supposed  Messiah,  scion  of 
David's  house,  who  was  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
Rome  and  restore  the  throne  of  Judah.  Soon  he  had 
half  a  million  men  at  his  back. 

The  Roman  governor,  Turnus  Rufus,  who  is  the 
Talmud's  archetype  of  cruelty,  fled  with  his  garrison. 
In  the  first  year  of  the  war  fifty  fortresses  and  a  thou- 
sand towns  capitulated  before  the  advancing  arms  of 
Bar  Cochba ;  for  the  presence  of  the  beloved  Akiba  gave' 
confidence  to  all.  We  might  say  of  him  as  was  writ- 
ten of  Moses,  "When  Akiba  raised  his  hand,  Israel 
prevailed." 

Hadrian,  who  first  slighted  the  insurrection,  had 
soon  reason  to  fear  it.  His  best  generals  were  dis- 
patched to  Judea  only  to  be  repulsed.  Already  Bar 
Cochba  was  having  coins  struck  with  his  insignia. 
Alas,  the  act  was  premature.  King  Ahab  once  said, 
"Let  not  him  boast  who  putteth  on  his  armor  as  he 
who  taketh  it  off."  In  the  meantime  Roman  prisoners 
of  war  were  treated  with  great  forbearance;  indeed 
some  heathens  impressed  with  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Jews,  had  joined  their  ranks. 

Eventually,  after  Bar  Cochba  had  held  sway  for  two 
years  without  cavalry  and  had  repulsed  every  Roman 
army,  Hadrian,  alarmed,  summoned  the  great  general, 
Julius  Severus,  from  distant  Britain.  The  Jewish 
focus  of  operations  was  at  Bethar,  south  of  Caesaria, 
and  one  mile  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  fortifications 


156         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

had  been  placed  North,  West  and  East  to  hold  control  of 
the  country.  Jezreel  commanded  the  centre. 

Like  Vespasian,  the  great  general  Severus,  decided 
on  siege  rather  than  attack.  So  he  steadily  cut  off  sup- 
plies and  provisions  and  also  barbarously  put  to  death 
all  prisoners  of  war.  There  was  no  Josephus  to  give 
us  vivid  details  of  this  campaign,  so  we  only  know  its 
general  result.  The  three  great  outlying  fortresses  on 
the  frontier  were  first  mastered.  The  next  battle  took 
place  on  the  field  of  Jezreel.  One  by  one  the  Jewish 
fortresses  fell.  The  whole  Judean  army  was  now  con- 
centrated in  Bethar  where  the  decisive  battle  must  be 
waged.  It  was  the  Jerusalem  of  this  war.  Severus 
resolved  to  starve  it  out.  For  one  year  the  Jews  brave- 
ly held  out  against  the  finest  army  of  the  age.  At  last 
some  Romans  found  a  way  into  Bethar  through  a  sub- 
terranean passage  which  some  Samaritans,  it  is  said, 
betrayed.  Then  followed  an  awful  carnage  in  which 
Roman  horses  "waded  to  the  nostrils  in  Jewish  blood." 
More  than  half  a  million  souls  were  slain  and  thou- 
sands more  perished  by  fire  and  hunger.  Yet  so  great 
were  also  the  Roman  losses  that  Hadrian  in  his  mes- 
sage of  the  campaign  to  the  Roman  senate,  significantly 
omitted  the  formula,  "I  and  the  army  are  well." 

In  the  year  135  Bethar  fell  and  tradition  places  it 
on  the  same  date  so  disastrous  in  Jewish  annals — the 
9th  of  Ab.  The  Roman  soldiers  kept  up  a  war  of  exter- 
mination against  the  scattered  bands  that  still  held  out. 
Many  who  had  taken  refuge  in  caves  were  brutally 


LAST    STRUGGLE    FOR    LIBERTY.  157 

massacred.  All  the  Jews  throughout  the  Roman  Em- 
pire were  made  to  feel  the  weight  of  Hadrian's  anger 
in  heavy  taxation.  As  though  wantonly  to  mark  its  com- 
plete desolation,  the  plow  was  passed  over  Jerusalem. 
North  of  it  was  built  a  Roman  city — Aelia  Capitolina. 
On  the  Temple  Mount  was  erected  a  shrine  dedicated 
to  Jupiter,  with  the  vindictive  purpose  of  obliterating 
the  very  name  of  Jerusalem.  And  it  was  forgotten — 
for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  No  Jew  dared  enter 
that  city  under  penalty  of  death.  But  his  real  punish- 
ment of  those  whom  failure  made  rebels  had  not  yet 
begun.  Keener  sighted  than  Vespasian,  who  blotted 
out  the  nation  but  protected  the  Faith,  he  now  saw  that 
there  was  only  one  way  to  crush  the  Jew — that  was  by 
crushing  his  religion.  To  that  abortive  purpose  he 
now  devoted  himself  with  all  the  inhumanity  of  a  Pha- 
raoh. To  the  cruel  but  cowardly  Turnus  Rufus,  who 
had  fled  at  the  first  alarm,  that  task  was  entrusted. 
Judaism  was  proscribed.  Obedience  to  its  Law  was  de- 
clared a  capital  crime.  What  should  they  do — commit 
physical  or  spiritual  suicide  ?  Was  ever  a  people  re- 
duced to  such  straits? 

A  few  were  ready  for  ignoble  acquiescence  and  call- 
ed it  submitting  to  the  inevitable,  forgetting  that  "in- 
evitable" is  an  elastic  term  that  varies  with  our  mor- 
al determination.  Meeting  secretly  in  a  garret,  the  Rab- 
bis considered  the  momentous  question  of  the  religious 
policy  of  this  critical  hour.  They  decided  that  while 
this  terrible  decree  lasted  the  people  might  disregard 


158         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Jewish  observances  under  duress,  since  the  Law  was 
given,  not  that  they  should  die,  but  live  by  it.  But 
fearing  that  their  lenient  proclamation  might  be  mis- 
takenly applied  to  the  fundamentals  of  religion  and 
morals,  they  made  this  safe-guard  :  Even  to  save  their 
lives,  no  Jew  must  commit  the  sins  of  IDOLATRY,  IN- 
CEST or  MURDER.  This  vitally  important  declaration, 
involving  the  all-compelling  sanction  of  the  Second, 
Sixth  and  Seventh  Commandments,  became  an  abiding 
principle  in  Judaism. 

But  many  of  the  Rabbis  themselves  refused  to  take 
advantage  of  the  temporary  leniency  they  were  willing 
to  grant  to  others,  and  determined  to  obey  every  in- 
junction of  Judaism ;  and  particularly,  to  impart  knowl- 
edge of  the  Law  to  their  disciples,  on  which  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  Jewish  tradition  depended — though 
they  knew  that  martyrdom  would  be  the  penalty  of 
discovery.  Roman  spies  were  everywhere  ready  to 
pounce  upon  any  who  committed  the  offense  of  obey- 
ing the  dictates  of  conscience.  Some  were  only  fined, 
but  others  were  put  to  death  with  tortures  too  cruel  to 
tell. 

Of  the  ten  martyrs  among  the  teachers  of  the  Law, 
Chananyah  ben  Teradion,  had  a  scroll  of  the  Law  he 
was  expounding  wound  round  him  and  was  burnt  in 
its  flames — wet  wool  being  placed  on  his  heart  to  pro- 
long his  agony.  His  executioner,  inspired  by  such 
lofty  example  of  faith  and  courage,  sought  death  with 
him  in  the  same  pyre. 


LAST    STRUGGLE    FOR    LIBERTY.  159 

Another,  Rabbi  Juda  ben  Baba,  gathered  some  of  his 
disciples  about  him  in  a  lonely  spot,  to  ordain  them  as 
rabbis  by  the  rite  of  Semicha,  already  explained.  Roman 
soldiers  discovering  him,  pierced  him  with  a  hundred 
arrows. 

Rabbi  Akiba  was  among  the  martyrs  and  would  not 
avail  himself  of  the  temporary  suspension  of  the  cere- 
monial Law.  Reproached  for  exposing  his  life  by 
teaching  the  Law,  he  answered  in  a  parable  that  has 
since  become  famous,  that  of  "The  Fox  and  the 
Fishes."  Better  that  the  fish  should  spurn  the  advice 
of  the  crafty  fox  and  remain  in  the  water — their  native 
element — even  tho'  it  was  made  perilous  by  the  nets 
of  men.  Was  not  Judaism  the  native  element  of  the 
Jew?  Soon  this  noble  soul  was  seized.  Rufus  or- 
dered him  to  be  flayed  to  death  by  iron  pincers.  But 
religion  cannot  be  killed  in  that  way.  In  the  midst 
of  his  agonies,  a  seraphic  smile  illuminated  his  face. 
"Daily,"  said  he,  "I  have  recited  the  Shema,  'Love 
God  with  heart  and  soul  and  might,'  and  now  I  under- 
stand its  last  phrase — 'with  all  thy  might,' — that  is 
even  though  He  ask  thy  life;  here  I  give  Him  my  life." 
With  this  wondrous  recital  of  Israel's  prayer,  this  sweet 
soul,  whose  opinions  may  have  won  some  opponents, 
but  whose  character  all  loved,  passed  away.  His  par- 
able of  "The  Fox  and  the  Fishes"  contained  a  pro- 
found truth,  for  verily  through  the  inspiration  of  his 
death  and  that  of  others  like  him  does  Israel  abide  to- 


l6o         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

day.    Here  was  another  application  of  the  "suffering 
servant"  in  Isaiah's  fifty-third  chapter. 

Thus  ended  Israel's  last  struggle  for  liberty.  It 
severed  too  the  last  link  that  yet  united  the  Jewish 
Christians  to  the  parent  Jewish  body.  "Why  hold 
further  relation  with  a  community  completely  crushed 
and  discredited  in  the  eyes  of  all  the  world?" 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

THE  MISHNA. 

Sorrowfully  the  Jews  now  took  up  the  burden  of  life 
once  more.  In  spite  of  dreadful  devastation  and  dreary 
outlook,  the  faith  and  spirit  of  the  majority  remained 
unbroken.  Hadrian  had  tried  to  eradicate  Judaism, 
but  he  had  failed.  The  defeated  were  still  the  victors. 
In  the  year  138  Hadrian  was  succeeded  by  the  more  hu- 
mane Antoninus  Pius.  The  religious  persecution  was 
stopped.  The  Sanhedrin  was  reopened  at  Oosha, 
the  Presidency  being  still  retained  in  the  family  of  Hil- 
lel.  Rabbi  Simon,  the  Nasi,  was  the  father  of  the 
maxim,  "The  world  rests  on  three  pillars — Truth, 
Justice  and  Peace."  Compare  the  "world's  three  pil- 
lars" of  Simon  the  Just. 

Rabbi  Mair  was  a  unique  figure  of  this  time.  He  is 
said  to  have  given  one-third  of  his  means  to  support 


THE    MISHNA.  l6l 

poor  students.  Not  at  first  recognized  because  of  his 
youth,  he  gave  expression  to  the  maxim,  "Look  not  at 
the  vessel,  but  at  that  which  it  contains ;  for  there  are 
new  flasks  full  of  old  wine  and  old  flasks  which  contain 
not  even  new  wine."  Did  not  Rabbi  Joshua  express  a 
similar  sentiment? 

His  wife,  Beruria,  is  the  most  renowned — or  perhaps 
the  only  renowned — woman  in  Talmudic  annals.  We 
might  compare  her  to  the  Shunamite  (II  Kings,  iv.), 
whom  the  Bible  calls  a  "great"  woman.  Great  was 
Beruria  in  strength  of  character,  in  dignity  and  withal 
in  motherly  affection.  She  was  indeed  a  helpmeet  to  her 
husband  and  to  many  of  her  people  in  a  time  of  storm 
and  stress.  Her  own  parents  had  been  martyrs  in  the 
Hadrianic  war.  She  was  a  scholar  too.  Her  keen 
penetration  and  at  the  same  time  her  womanly  tender- 
ness are  revealed  in  her  interpretation  of  the  text,  "Let 
sinners  be  consumed  out  of  the  earth."  (Psalms  civ. — 
35).  Not  hate-im,  but  hata-im — not  sinners,  but  sin. 
Then  indeed  will  be  fulfilled  the  hope  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  text — "The  wicked  will  be  no  more." 

Her  strength  of  character  is  perhaps  best  revealed  in 
the  pathetic  story  told  of  the  consoling  way  in  which 
she  broke  to  her  husband  the  terrible  news  of  the  death 
of  their  two  sons.  Through  a  beautiful  symbolism  she 
lead  him  to  confess,  before  she  revealed  the  sad  tid- 
ings, that  "jewels"  lent  to  them  must  be  returned;  in 
this  way  fortifying  him  with  consolation  for  the  sor- 


l62         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

row  awaiting  him,  she  revealed  their  double  bereave- 
ment. 

Rabbi  Mair  was  a  broad  man  who  gladly  gathered 
knowledge  from  all,  Jew  and  non-Jew  alike.  Mark 
this  bit  of  wisdom :  "Who  studies  the  Law  for  its  own 
sake  is  worth  the  whole  world  and  is  loved  by  God  and 
man."  Is  not  the  study  of  the  Law  for  its  own  sake 
the  very  essence  of  religion  ?  He  would  illustrate  his 
lessons  by  fables  in  the  portrayal  of  which  he  was  won- 
derfully gifted. 

The  Tanai  epoch,  as  it  opened,  so  now  closes  with  a 
remarkable  man — RABBI  JUDAH,  called  par  excellence 
The  Nasi :  i.  e.  greatest  of  all.  And  no  Nasi  before  him 
had  been  permitted  to  exercise  so  much  power  over  the 
Sanhedrin, — now  located  in  Sepphoris  in  Galilee. 

Like  so  many  of  his  predecessors,  he  devoted  much 
of  his  wealth  to  the  maintenance  of  students  of  the 
Law,  and  fed  the  poor  during  a  famine.  His  most 
valuable  service  was  the  complete  codification  of  all 
the  Halachath  that  had  been  been  gradually  accumulat- 
ing since  the  days  of  the  Maccabees.  While  similar 
collections  had  been  made  before  his  time  commenced 
by  Hillel,  amplified  by  Rabbi  Akiba  and  revised  by 
Rabbi  Mair,  his  final  editing  of  the  previous  work  be- 
came the  officially  accepted  condensation  of  the  Oral 
Law — THE  MISHNA,  superseding  all  earlier  collections. 

Written  in  the  new  Hebrew  of  the  days  of  the  Sec- 
ond Temple,  it  became  the  text-book  in  all  the  schools, 


THE   MISHNA.  163 

the  recognized  code  for  all  legal  decisions.  As  the  Sec- 
ond Law — which  Mishna  means — it  now  took  its  place 
beside  the  Law  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  just  as  that  first 
Law  was  a  text  for  further  development,  so  too  we 
shall  see  that  this  Second  Law,  containing  Halachath 
of  the  Sopherim,  the  Pairs  and  the  Tanaim,  became 
the  parent  of  a  vast  growth  of  precepts  and  prohibi- 
tions in  the  interpreting  hands  of  the  generations  now 
to  follow. 

The  Mishna  is  divided  into  six  books : 

I — Seeds. 
II — Festivals. 
Ill — Women. 
IV — Civil  and  Criminal  Law. 

V — Sacrificial  Laws. 
VI — Purification. 

These  six  groups  (Sedarim)  contain  sixty  subdivis- 
ions, (Mesechtas)  as  follows: 

I.    SEEDS. 

1.  Prayers. 

2.  "Corners"  of  fields  for  poor.  (Levit.  xix.,  9-10). 

3.  Doubtful  produce,  (whether  tithed  or  untithed). 

4.  Illegal  mixtures.  (See  Deut.  xxii.,  9-11). 

5.  Sabbatic  Year. 

6.  Priests'  Tithes. 

7.  Levites'  Tithes. 

8.  Secondary  Tithes. 

9.  Dough  offerings.  (Numbers  xv.,  17). 


164         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

10.  Prohibited  fruits  of  first  three  years.  (Levit.  xix., 

23-25). 

11.  First  fruits. 

II.    FESTIVALS. 

1.  Sabbath. 

2.  Uniting  localities  to  extend  limit  of  Sabbath  walk. 

3.  Passover. 

4.  Half-shekel  tax.  (Ex.  xxx.,  n). 

5.  Day  of  Atonement. 

6.  Tabernacles. 

7.  Festival  regulations. 

8.  New  Year. 

9.  Fasts. 

10.  Purim. 

11.  Minor  Feasts. 

12.  Festival  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem. 

III.  WOMEN. 

1.  Levirate  marriage.  (Deut.  xxv.,  5-10). 

2.  Marriage  contracts. 

3.  Vows. 

4.  Nazarites.  (Numbers  vi.,  &  xxx.) 

5.  The  suspected  sinner. 

6.  Divorce. 

7.  Betrothal. 

IV.    CIVIL  AND  CRIMINAL  LAW. 

1.     First  division — general. 

2     Second  division — Suits  between  Master  and  Serv- 
ant, etc. 


THE   MISHNA.  l$ 

3.  Third  Division — Municipal  and    social    regula- 

tions. 

4.  The  Sanhedrin  and  Criminal  Law. 

5.  Punishment  by  flogging. 

6.  Oaths. 

7.  Witnesses. 

8.  Idolatry. 

9.  Ethics  of  the  Fathers. 
10.  Accidental  Offenses. 

V.   SACRIFICIAL  LAWS. 

1.  Sacrifices. 

2.  Meat  offerings. 

3.  Slaughtered  animals  for  food  only. 

4.  The  first  born  sacrifice. 

5.  Redemption:         )     c     T 

>     See  Levit.  xxvm. 

6.  and  Exchange : 

7.  Excommunication. 

8.  Embezzlement. 

9.  Temple  Sacrificial  services. 

10.  Temple  arrangements. 

11.  Offerings  of  poor.  (Levit.  v.,  i-io  &  xii.,  8). 

VI.  PURIFICATION. 

1.  Household  furniture. 

2.  Tents  and  houses. 

3.  Leprosy. 

4.  The  "Red  Heifer"  purification.  (Numb,  xix.) 

5.  Lesser  defilements. 


1 66         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

6.  Washings. 

7.  Periodic  defilement. 

8.  Conditional  impurities. 

9.  Wounds. 

10.  Personal  defilement. 

1 1 .  Washing  of  the  hands. 

12.  Defilement  of  fruits. 

About  150  authorities  are  quoted  in   the   Mishna, 
involving  about  2,000  statements. 

While  the  Mishna  is  strictly  a  code  only,  still  its 
underlying  structure  is  religious.  The  moral  is  every- 
where impressed.  One  of  its  sections  is  a  Book  of 
Morals  called  Ethics  of  the  Fathers,  from  which  rab- 
binic sayings  have  already  been  quoted.  We  find  no 
system  of  doctrines  in  the  Mishna  and  no  formulated 
creed.  A  bad  life  is  summed  up  in  the  general  term — 
epicurean,  which  probably  meant  sensual  self-indul- 
gence and  scoffing  scepticism.  The  Jew  is  not  asked 
to  believe  in  God's  existence.  That  is  taken  for  grant- 
ed ;  Atheism  hardly  came  within  his  ken.  He  is  asked 
only  to  shun  anything  that  tends  to  idolatry.  The  ac- 
ceptance of  two  fundamental  beliefs  is  made  the  con- 
dition of  future  life — Revelation  and  Resurrection.  To 
withhold  Immortality  from  him  who  denies  it  we  might 
call  poetic  justice.  The  punishment  of  wickedness  in 
general  is  not  Hell,  but  oblivion;  for  death  atones  all 
sin. 

While  the  ceremonial  law  was  rigorous,  its  observ- 
ance was  saved  from  being  mechanical  by  the  import- 


THE   MISHNA.  l/ 

ance  laid  on  sincerity  of  intention  and  on  inner  devo- 
tion. Rabba,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  later,  said,  "He 
who  does  good  for  reasons  other  than  the  good  itself, 
it  were  better  that  he  had  never  been  born."  This 
teaching  in  characteristic.  To  transcend  the  Law  in  the 
keeping  of  one's  word  merits  the  highest  praise.  Many 
prohibitions  were  imposed — not  wrong  in  themselves, 
but  as  barriers  against  possible  wrong.  These  forme^ 
a  "fence  around  the  Law." 

The  acceptance  of  the  Mishna  as  the  Canon  of  Jew- 
ish Law  curtailed — theoretically  at  least — the  freedom 
of  the  rabbis  that  now  followed  in  the  evolving  of  new 
Law.  The  teachers  were  henceforth  at  liberty  only  to 
expound  the  Mishnas.  They  are  therefore  called 
AMORAIM — expounders — to  distinguish  them  from 
the  Tanaim  that  class  of  teachers  who  interpreted  direct 
from  the  Scriptures  and  whose  work  closed  with  the 
Mishna. 

The  Mishna  tended  to  still  further  decide  the  legal 
character  of  Judaism.  While  it  may  have  robbed  the 
individual  of  spontaneity  of  religious  action,  it 
strengthened  the  bulwarks  of  moral  law — "the  cate- 
gorical imperative,"  as  Kant  calls  it. 

Rabbi  Judah,  the  Prince,  not  only  compiled  the 
teachings  of  others,  but  he  left  valuable  maxims  of  his 
own : 

"Be  as  careful  of  the  observance  of  a  light  pre- 
cept as  of  a  weighty  one." 

"Balance  the  material  loss  involved  in  the  per- 


1 68          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

formance  of  a  precept  against  its  spiritual  com- 
pensation." 

"Know  what  is  above  thee.  A  seeing  eye,  a 
hearing  ear,  and  that  all  thy  actions  are  written 
in  a  book." 

No  Nasi  received  so  much  reverential  regard  from 
the  people  at  large.  While  he  was  dying,  they  gath- 
ered around  his  house,  declaring  in  the  hyperbole  of 
grief  that  they  would  slay  the  person  who  would  dare 
announce  his  death.  At  length  there  came  forward 
Bar  Kappara,  the  only  Hebrew  poet  of  this  period — a 
man  of  broad  scientific  attainments  and  withal  a  man 
of  delicate  imagination.  In  these  words  he  announced 
Rabbi  Jehudah  Hanasi's  death:  "Angels  and  mortals 
contended  for  the  ark  of  the  Covenant.  The  angels 
have  conquered,  the  ark  of  the  Covenant  is  gone." 

But  a  passing  word  of  other  great  men  of  this  epoch. 
Rabbi  Jochanan  showed  his  breadth  of  view  in  encour- 
aging the  study  of  Greek  and  opening  up  its  great 
literature  to  Jewish  youth,  and  particularly  in  his  rec- 
ommendation of  it  for  girls.  This  urging  of  the  culti- 
vation of  the  female  mind  formed  a  pleasing  contrast 
to  the  prevailing  practise — the  neglect  of  the  educa- 
tion of  women — which  practise  survives  in  some  of 
our  communities  today. 

To  this  period  also  belonged  that  keen  dialectician, 
Resh  Lakish,  renowned  both  for  his  colossal  strength 
and  his  schupulous  honesty.  He  alone  saw  that  the 


THE    MISHNA  169 

Book  of  Job  was  not  a  history,  but  a  life  problem  put 
in  the  form  of  a  story.  He  also  taught  that  Hell  has  no 
real  existence. 

Another  teacher,  Rabbi  Simlai,  searched  the  Script- 
ures and  enumerated  613  ordinances  of  Judaism — 365 
negative  and  248  affirmative  precepts.  He  found  them 
further  reduced  to  eleven  principles  in  the  1 5th  Psalm ; 
in  Isaiah  xxxiii.  to  six;  in  Micah  vi.-8  to  three;  in 
Isaiah;  Ivi.  to  two;  and  in  Amos  v.-4  to  one;  to  one 
also  in  Habbakuk  ii.-4. 

Nor  must  we  forget  those  delegate  rabbis  who,  in- 
vestigating the  religious  and  educational  condition  of 
various  towns  and  finding  in  one  place  no  teachers, 
asked  the  magistrate  to  present  the  guardians  of  the 
city.  He  marchel  forth  the  armed  men.  "No,"  said 
the  delegates,  "these  are  not  the  guardians,  but  the 
destroyers  of  a  city.  Its  true  guardians  are  the  teach- 
ers." 

Let  us  mention  in  this  group  too  Rabbi  Abahu,  the 
last  of  the  great  men  of  the  Palestinian  schools,  re- 
nowned not  so  much  as  an  expert  on  the  Halacha  as  a 
keen  Hagadist.  This  is  another  way  of  saying  that  he 
was  not  so  much  a  subtle  jurist  as  a  great  Preacher. 
He  was  a  student  of  human  nature.  His  keen  insight 
on  one  occasion  chose  as  the  worthiest  to  pray  for  rain, 
a  man  of  bad  repute,  but  whom  he  had  discerned  pos- 
sessed a  nature  of  rare  worth. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 
For  a  complete  numeration  of  the  613  precepts,  see 


I7O         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

article  "Commandments,"  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  Vol. 
IV. 

Read  Liberal  Judaism,  Montefiore;  pages  113  and 
114:  Macmillan. 

Another  collection  similar  to  the  Mishna  and  ar- 
ranged on  the  same  plan  was  called  Tosephta  (adden- 
dum). This  contained,  however,  more  Haggada  and 
for  the  most  part  commentaries  on  Scripture. 

Read  article  "Prof.  Schiirer  on  Life  Under  the 
Law,"  by  Israel  Abrahams  in  Jewish  Quarterly  Re- 
view, Vol.  XL,  and  "The  Law  and  Recent  Criticism" 
Schechter,  Vol.  III. 


CHAPTER     XXXI. 

BABYLONIA  AND  ITS  SCHOOLS. 

Ever  since  the  Bar  Cochba  war,  the  numerical  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  Jews  had  shifted  to  Babylonia,  and 
soon  after  the  compilation  of  the  Mishna  in  Palestine, 
this  land  became  the  religious  centre  too. 

A  fertile  country,  it  lay  between  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  and  the  Persian  Gulf  at  the  south — though 
the  term  is  sometimes  used  in  Jewish  annals  to  include 
the  surrounding  lands,  the  eastern  boundary  extending 
as  far  as  the  Arabian  Desert.  This  second  "Land  of 
Israel"  had  been  a  home  for  the  Jews  since  the  first 
forced  exile  there  in  the  year  600  B.  C.  E.  in  the  days 
of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel.  From  Babylon  came  both 


BABYLONIA    AND    ITS    SCHOOLS  17f 

Ezra  and  Hillel,  though  in  the  four  centuries  interven- 
ing between  these  two  men  we  hear  nothing  of  Jewish 
life  in  Babylon. 

This  land  had  varied  fortunes.  The  home  of  the 
Babylonians — one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Semitic 
families  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  civilizations — it 
was  conquered  by  Cyrus  the  Persian  about  540  B.  c.  E. 
About  the  year  330  it  was  taken  by  Alexander  in 
his  triumphant  march  through  Asia  and  became  part 
of  the  Seleucidean  Empire.  This  brought  into  it  some- 
thing of  a  Greek  atmosphere.  In  the  year  160  B.  c.  E. 
it  was  conquered  by  Parthia — an  Asiatic  nation  dwel- 
ling south  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  This  regime  continued 
for  four  centuries,  though  the  Parthians  exercised  no 
influence  whatever  on  the  Jews.  In  the  year  226,  A. 
c.  E.  a  Neo-Persian  dynasty  was  re-established.  This 
continued  till  the  coming  of  the  Arabs  in  the  Seventh 
Century. 

During  all  these  changes  in  the  controlling  power, 
the  Jews  continued  in  Babylonia  undisturbed.  When 
Judea  fell  in  the  year  70,  that  seemed  almost  an  an- 
nihilating catastrophe,  their  life  went  on  without  a 
break,  except  that  it  brought  to  Babylon  a  large  num- 
ber of  Jewish  refugees.  So  that  by  the  Second  Century 
after  the  Christian  Era,  it  had  become  the  centre  of 
greatest  Jewish  influence  and  activity.  Trajan  had 
tried  to  conquer  the  land,  but  failed.  So  they  remained 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  Roman  grasp. 

What  was  the  Jewish  status  here?    Since  the  time  of 


172          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Cyrus  the  government  had  been  Persian.  Given  almost 
complete  political  independence,  they  simply  paid  taxes 
to  the  government.  •  As  Persia  had  granted  to  the 
Jews  the  privilege  of  administering  their  own  affairs  in 
Judea,  so  naturally,  the  same  permission  was  granted 
in  Babylonia.  There  was  this  important  difference: 
The  head  of  the  Judean  community  had  been  the  High 
Priest  in  the  days  when  the  Temple  stood.  When  we 
turn  to  Babylon  in  the  century  following  Jerusalem's 
overthrow,  we  find  the  governor  of  the  Jewish  com- 
munity was  called  Exilarch  or  RESH  GELUTHA,  to 
use  the  Jewish  expression,  (Head  of  the  Exile). — 
Goluth — Exile,  was  a  word  freighted  with  emotional 
meaning  to  our  fathers. 

In  the  first  place  the  Resh  Gelutha,  as  distinct  from 
the  High  Priest,  was  entirely  a  civil  functionary.  In 
the  second,  the  office  carried  more  power.  The  Exil- 
arch was  recognized  by  the  government  and  occupied 
a  place  among  the  Persian  nobility.  At  first  but  col- 
lectors of  revenue,  they  were  later  treated  as  princes — 
perhaps  as  a  mark  of  gratitude  for  the  Jewish  support 
of  Parthia  against  Rome.  A  good  deal  of  pomp  came 
to  be  associated  with  the  office.  These  Exilarchs  were 
all  chosen  from  the  House  of  David,  and  so  represented 
a  quasi-royalty.  The  line  continued  unbroken  till  the 
Eleventh  Century.  The  Exilarchs  exercised  complete 
judicial  authority  among  their  own  people.  Unlike 
the  Patriarch  or  Nasi  of  Judea  with  whom  we  may  also 


BABYLONIA    AND    ITS    SCHOOLS 

compare  them,  they  were  not  necessarily  learned  in  the 
Law. 

The  Jews  of  Babylonia  were  for  the  most  part  en- 
gaged in  agriculture,  various  trades  and  work  on  the 
canals.  Fortunate  indeed  were  they  to  have  again  se- 
cured a  home  beyond  Rome's  cruel  control,  where  un- 
disturbed they  might  live  their  own  life.  In  the  study 
of  the  Law  they  found  inexhaustible  material  for  in- 
tellectual and  religious  activity.  But  how  was  religion 
taught  and  the  continuity  of  Judaism  maintained  in 
Babylonia  ? 

At  first  they  were  entirely  dependent  on  the  Pales- 
tinian Academies  established  in  Jamnia  and  Lydda  and 
other  places  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  were  al- 
together subject  to  the  Judean  Sanhedrin.  And  many 
students  traveled  hither  to  study  at  its  schools.  But 
after  a  time  the  community  grew  strong  enough  in- 
tellectually to  establish  academies  of  its  own.  The  most 
famous  were  those  of  Nahardea,  Sura  and  Pumbaditha. 
The  heads  of  the  Academies  corresponded  to  the  Jud- 
ean Patriarchs,  only  that  all  civil  power  was  vested 
in  the  Resh  Gelutha. 

Step  by  step  the  Babylonians  increased  in  learning; 
and,  acquiring  confidence,  came  to  feel  less  the  need  of 
the  guidance  of  the  parent  authority.  Soon  they  claim- 
ed independent  jurisdiction.  This  was  bitterly  resented 
in  Palestine.  The  removal  of  the  Sanhedrin  to  Jamnia 
had  been  the  first  wrench.  The  second  was  the  removal 
of  the  central  authority  in  Judea  itself  to  distant  Baby- 


A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Ionia.  But  they  could  not  stem  the  tide.  As  the  for- 
tunes of  the  Jews  declined  in  Judea,the  schools  declined 
with  them.  Steadily  waned  too  the  authority  of  the 
Patriarch. 

Babylonian  schools  also  produced  great  scholars, 
some  of  them  as  renowned  as  those  of  Judea.  Of 
course,  they  are  all  Amoraim,  not  Tanaim.  Why?  Let 
us  mention  first  ABBA  AREKA,  popularly  called  by  his 
many  disciples  Rab  (Rabbi),  "the  teacher,"  who  flour- 
ished in  Babylonia  a  few  years  after  the  Mishna  had 
been  compiled  in  Palestine.  Apart  from  his  duties  as 
expounder  of  the  Law,  the  Resh  Gelutha  appointed  him 
to  the  position  of  supervisor  of  weights  and  measures. 
Occasioned  by  this  occupation  to  travel  in  outlying  dis- 
tricts, he  discovered  the  ignorance  of  the  remoter  con- 
gregations. This  led  to  his  establishment  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sura,  219,  A.  c.  E.  It  continued  a  seat  of  Jew- 
ish study  for  eight  hundred  years.  Hundreds  of  pupils 
flocked  to  his  Academy.  Some  he  maintained  from  his 
own  purse.  At  the  same  time  the  study  hours  were  ar- 
ranged to  give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  earn  their  liv- 
ing. Some  lectures  were  delivered  to  the  public  at 
large. 

It  was  not  only  in  the  expounding  of  ritual  and  civil 
law  to  which  Rab  devoted  his  energies,  but  also  to 
raising  the  moral  standard  of  the  people.  For  the  aus- 
tere simplicity  and  purity  of  Jewish  life  had  sadly  de- 
generated in  Babylonia.  Wonderfully  salutary  and  ef- 
fective was  the  influence  of  Rab  in  his  moral  crusade. 
He  made  the  betrothal  and  marriage  laws  more  strict 
and  more  decorous.  He  also  strengthened  the  author- 


BABYLONIA    AND    ITS    SCHOOLS 

ity  of  the  Courts  of  Justice  by  resort  to  excommunica- 
tion of  refractory  persons.  Deservedly  was  this 
modest  man  called  the  Hillel  of  his  day. 

Usually  associated  with  the  name  of  Rab  was  the 
versatile  MAR  SAMUEL,  his  contemporary.  He  was  es- 
sentially the  rationalist  of  his  age  and  discovered  with 
his  hard  common  sense  the  dreamer  who  awaited  the 
miraculous.  In  Jewish  Law  his  ability  chiefly  was  di- 
rected toward  the  interpretation  of  civil  jurisprudence, 
for  which  he  was  especially  fitted.  His  most  famous 
decision  and  that  which  most  affected  the  Jews  was 
expressed  in  the  phrase,  dina  d'Malchuthah  dina,- 
"The  law  of  the  state  is  the  law  for  us."  This  means 
that  it  is  our  duty  as  Jews  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  coun- 
tries in  which  we  live.  This  principle  tended  to  recon- 
cile our  fathers  to  the  lands  of  their  exile,  taught  them 
their  true  relation  to  them  and  was  in  the  spirit  of  the 
message  of  Jeremiah  to  the  very  first  exiles  to  Babylon 
— "Seek  the  peace  of  the  country  whither  ye  are  exiled 
and  pray  to  the  Lord  for  its  welfare."  The  ultimate 
result  of  Samuel's  dictum  was  that  the  better  the  Jew. 
the  better  the  patriot. 

Samuel  had  the  courage  of  his  convictions.  For 
when  the  Persian  king,  Shabur,  was  engaged  in  war 
against  Asia  Minor,  many  Jews  fell,  who  were  fighting 
in  the  ranks  on  the  opposing  side.  Yet  he  would  not 
countenance  mourning  for  his  fallen  coreligionists  since 
they  had  fought  against  his  king. 

Babylonia  was  its  broad  unbroken  plains  that  gave 
such  wide  survey  of  the  heavens,  became  in  conse- 
quence the  cradle  of  astronomy,  and  Babylonian  Jews 


176         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

were  expert  in  this  science.  So  versed  was  Samuel  in 
the  course  of  the  stars  that  he  once  said,  "The  tracks  of 
the  heavens  are  as  familiar  to  me  as  the  streets  of  Ne- 
hardea."  His  astronomical  knowledge  enabled  him  to 
arrange  a  fixed  calendar  and  made  Babylon  further  in- 
dependent of  Judea  in  deciding  the  dates  of  the  festi- 
vals. He  was  also  a  renowned  physician.  But  medi- 
cine and  astronomy  were  characteristic  accomplish- 
ments of  the  Jewish  sages.  Samuel  did  not  scorn  to 
learn  from  the  Persian  sages  or  Magi,  as  they  were 
called.  While  greatly  esteemed,  not  all  of  his  contem- 
poraries realized  how  profound  a  scholar  he  was.  For 
in  a  sense  he  was  a  man  in  advance  of  his  time.  We 
undejstand  him  better  to-day. 

What  was  the  religion  of  Israel's  Babylonian  mas- 
ters? The  Parthians  were  inclined  toward  Hellenism 
and  exercised  no  religious  influence  on  the  Jews.  But 
when  the  Persians  again  came  under  control  of  Baby- 
lonia 226  A.  c.  EV  they  instituted  the  religion  of  the 
Magi.  The  founder  of  this  faith  was  Zoroaster.  This 
great  religious  genius  explained  the  existence  of  evil  in 
the  world  as  the  persistent  conflict  of  two  great  spirits 
— Ormuzd,  spirit  of  light  and  good  (God),  and  Ahri- 
man  (devil),  spirit  of  darkness  and  evil.  The  sun  was 
the  visible  type  of  Ormuzd  and  fire  the  expression  of 
his  energy.  Thus  Ormuzd  was  worshipped  under  the 
symbol  of  fire.  This  worship  spread  over  a  large  part 
of  Asia.  It  did  not  deserve  to  be  classed  with  the  idola- 
tries of  the  heathen  world  that  brought  so  many  im- 
moralities in  their  train,  for  we  see  even  while  disagree- 


BABYLONIA    AND    ITS    SCHOOLS 

ing  with  its  recognition  of  a  devil,  that  it  expressed 
exalted  ideas.  But  the  rise  of  this  Neo-Persian  dy- 
nasty, awakening  new  religious  energy,  led  to  a  pass- 
ing persecution  of  all  non-fire-worshippers. 

Meanwhile  the  Babylonian  schools — Metibta,  as  each 
was  called — (Hebrew,  Yeshiba)  still  flourished  and  ap- 
pealed to  more  students  than  had  been  reached  in  Pales- 
tine, many  of  whom  became  great  Amoraim.  Baby- 
lon, in  fact,  was  now  a  Jewish  colony  regulated  by  the 
laws  of  the  Bible  and  Mishna  as  interpreted  in  the 
Academies.  Even  the  Resh  Gelutha  was  in  later  times 
often  a  Jewish  scholar,  as  for  example,  Mar  Ukba. 
In  addition  to  the  Resh  Metibta — head  of  the  School 
— there  was  a  Resh  Kallah,  President  of  the  General 
Assembly — an  institution  not  found  in  the  Palestinian 
Academies.  These  were  for  the  benefit  of  visiting  stu- 
dents and  met  twice  a  year  in  the  months  of  Adar  and 
Elul. 

Most  renowned  of  Rab's  successors  was  Rabbi  Huna, 
who  died  in  297.  Following  the  recognized  precedent, 
not  to  use  the  Law  as  a  spade,  he  earned  his  living  by 
farming. 

Reverence  was  shown  to  Judea  now  only  in  so  far 
that  the  pious  Jews  desired  to  be  buried  there,  while 
persecutions  in  Roman  realms  brought  still  more  re- 
fugees to  Babylonia. 

The  next  generation  of  scholars  we  must  pass  over 
rapidly  with  just  a  word.  In  Pumbaditha  we  may  men- 
tion Rabba,  who  believed  in  the  saving  sense  of  humor 
and  also  set  himself  the  more  serious  occupation  of 
classifying  the  Halachath  accumulated  since  the  Mishna 


178         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

had  been  compiled.  The  method  of  deduction  as  taught 
in  the  Babylonian  Schools  was  more  subtle  than  that 
of  Judea.  Its  hair-splitting  tendency  in  the  next  gen- 
eration of  Amoraim  occasionally  degenerated  into 
casuistry. 

Rabba's  successor,  Rabbi  Joseph  ben  Hija,  furnished 
a  Chaldean  translation  of  the  Prophets.  The  Torah 
had  already  been  translated  into  it  for  popular  use.  Bear 
in  mind  that  Chaldaic,  not  Hebrew,  was  the  vernacular. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Read  Dr.  Mielziner's  Introduction  to  the  Talmud, 
(Bloch  Publ.  Co.),  Chap.  IV. 

This  book  is  particularly  recommended  in  connection 
with  the  chapters  on  Mishna,  Talmud  and  the  Acad- 
emies. 

Read  Article  "Babylonia,"  Jewish  Encyclopedia, 
II. 


CHAPTER     XXXII. 
CHRISTIANITY  THE  STATE  CHURCH  OF  ROME. 

ROMAN  EMPERORS 

Antoninus  Pius 138 

Marcus  Aurelius 161 

Com  modus 180 

Alexander  Severus 222-235 

Diocletian 284 

Constantine 320 

Constantius  II 337-363 

At  the  death  of  Antoninus  Pius  two  Emperors 
reigned  conjointly — Varus,  a  degenerate,  and  Marcus 
Aurelius,  a  philosopher.  The  Roman  Empire  was  be- 


CHRISTIANITY  THE  STATE  CHURCH  OF  ROME      179 

coming  steadily  demoralized.  It  was  at  the  mercy  of 
a  series  of  degraded  creatures  who  engaged  in  scandal- 
ous conflicts  for  the  bauble  of  royal  power.  At  times 
the  purple  was  offered  to  the  highest  bidder. 

But  in  222  the  throne  came  into  the  hands  of  a  bet- 
ter type  of  man,  Alexander  Severus.  Unlike  most  of 
his  predecessors,  he  respected  Judaism,  and  Hillel's 
Golden  Rule  was  inscribed  on  the  walls  of  his  palace. 
So  his  reign  meant  thirteen  pleasant  years  for  the  Jews 
— a  little  break  of  sunshine  through  the  lowering 
clouds. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  Severus,  degeneracy 
again  set  in  and  usurper  after  usurper  seized  the  throne. 
The  monotony  of  upstarts  was  occasionally  broken  by 
a  better  type  of  man  like  Diocletian.  The  demoralized 
condition  of  the  State  was  reflected  in  the  people  at 
large.  Paganism  at  its  best  had  failed  as  a  scheme  of 
life.  Roman  society  was  hopelessly  corrupt  and  on  the 
eve  of  collapse.  The  people  no  longer  believed  in  the 
supposed  divinities  Jupiter  and  Apollo.  The  philoso- 
phers tried  to  explain  them  away  as  abstract  ideas.  The 
ceremonies  of  the  temples  became  a  mummery.  The 
augurs  (priests  who  were  supposed  to  foretell  the 
events  by  examining  the  entrails  of  birds)  could  not 
look  each  other  in  the  face  without  laughing. 

The  more  earnest  prayed  for  something  better.  Had 
Judaism  not  been  discredited  and  under  a  ban  and  the 
Jews,  its  followers,  spurned  as  an  alien  race,  it  might 
have  been  more  largely  sought — though  its  ceremonial 
code  was  exacting  and  its  moral  code  severe.  It  made 
not  an  iota  of  concession  to  win  a  single  pagan  to  the 


l8o         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

fold.  As  it  was,  in  spite  of  discouraging  conditions, 
many  would-be  proselytes  knocked  at  the  doors  of  the 
Synagogue. 

But  for  many  reasons,  Christianity  was  in  a  better 
conditions  to  make  converts.  Most  of  its  adherents  had 
come  through  conversion,  and  proselytism  was  a  card- 
inal item  in  its  program.  The  eagerness  of  the  Christ- 
ians to  bring  a  religious  message  to  the  heathen  de- 
serves high  praise  and  must  not  be  under-rated,  though 
it  betrayed  weakness  in  being  too  ready  to  make  con- 
cessions to  pagan  notions.  The  semi-idolatrous  idea 
that  Jesus  was  at  once  man  and  God  was  a  familiar  con- 
ception to  the  pagan  mind.  The  dramatic  picture  of 
his  dying  on  the  cross  to  save  mankind  appealed  to 
their  emotions.  The  treatment  of  the  Jewish  expression 
"holy  spirit,"  (meaning  nothing  more  than  the  divine 
inspiration),  as  a  being — a  separate  divinity — intro- 
duced a  third  element  into  the  God-idea — the  "Holy 
Ghost."  (Ghost  in  old  English,  spirit;  notice  the  Ger- 
man "Geist.")  This  made  the  Christian  divinity  a 
Trinity.  But  a  three-headed  Godt  so  revolting  to  Jew- 
ish ideas,  was  quite  a  recognized  theological  notion 
in  the  heathen  world. 

With  these  sugar-coated  accretions,  the  nobler  Jew- 
ish teachings  which  were  Christianity's  foundations, 
were  more  readily  swallowed.  Christianity  became 
popular  in  Rome.  Its  adherents  were  found  in  all 
ranks.  When  they  were  a  small  and  feeble  group,  the 
Roman  Emperors  had  persecuted  them.  But  now  they 
were  in  the  majority.  The  tables  were  turned.  Only 
minorities  are  persecuted. 


CHRISTIANITY  THE  STATE  CHURCH  OF  ROME      l8l 

Thus  it  was  that  an  Emperor  named  Constantine  de- 
cided first  to  give  toleration  to  all  cults  and  ultimately 
to  adopt  Christianity — "partly  from  a  genuine  moral 
sympathy,  yet  doubtless  far  more  in  the  well-grounded 
belief  that  he  had  more  to  gain  from  the  zealous  sym- 
pathy of  its  professors  than  to  lose  by  the  aversion  of 
those  who  still  cultivated  a  languid  paganism."  This 
act  made  it  the  religion  of  the  Empire.  But  since  Rome 
was  mistress  of  half  the  civilized  world,  this  acquisition 
of  power  and  numbers  at  once  gave  to  the  new  Faith 
an  eminence  it  has  never  lost.  The  effect  of  this  promo- 
tion was  profound  and  lasting  and  vitally  affected  the 
destiny  of  Israel. 

The  attitude  of  enthroned  Christianity  was  at  once 
inimical  to  the  parent  Faith.  At  first  sight  it  would 
seem  that  it  might  be  more  kindly  disposed  to  a  re- 
ligion to  which  it  owed  so  much  and  to  which  it  was  so 
closely  related.  Alas  to  confess  it — for  such  is  human 
nature — the  very  closeness  of  the  relationship  was  the 
cause  of  its  enmity.  It  regarded  the  very  persistence 
of  Judaism  as  a  denial  of  its  theories,  and  as  a  challenge 
to  its  claims.  Christianity  declared  the  Law  abrogat- 
ed ;  Judaism  was  more  devoted  to  it  than  ever.  Chris- 
tianity declared  that  the  Messiah  had  come;  Judaism 
maintained  he  had  not.  Christianity  called  Jesus  a 
divinity — Son  of  God ;  the  Jews  spurned  this  as  a  blas- 
phemy. Christianity  taught  a  Trinity ;  Judaism,  on  the 
other  hand,  made  monotheism  a  passion  and  taught  the 
indivisible  Unity  of  God  as  the  cardinal  principle  of  re- 
ligion. 

The  first  act  by  which  Christianity  exercised  its  new 


l82         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

power  was  to  prohibit  Jews  from  making  converts  to 
Judaism  (315),  while  Jews  who  became  proselytes 
to  Christianity  were  rewarded  by  the  State.  Thus  it 
conspired  for  the  gradual  elimination  of  the  Jewish 
Faith. 

As  its  ranks  rapidly  swelled,  Christianity  continued 
to  make  consciously  and  unconsciously  more  and  more 
concessions  to  heathen  beliefs,  and  customs  that  were 
deeply  rooted  in  the  hearts  of  people  who  accepted  the 
new  creed  more  or  less  superficially.  The  original  Es- 
sene  ideas  from  which  it  had  sprung  were  completely 
lost  to  view.  Taking  the  imperial  government  as  its 
model,  the  Church  reproduced  Roman  administration 
in  its  systematic  organization,  even  to  its  despotic  de- 
mand of  sole  sway.  Enforcing  a  rigid  uniformity  of 
doctrine,  there  was  now  organized  a  hierarchy  of  pa- 
triarchs and  bishops  whose  power  was  enforced  by  the 
State  and  whose  provinces  corresponded  with  the  ad- 
ministrative divisions  of  the  Empire,  the  Emperor  being 
head  of  the  church.  In  the  year  325  a  Church  Council 
was  called  at  Nicaea  (Asia  Minor)  to  draw  up  the  of- 
ficial creed  of  Christianity.  For  it  laid  great  stress  on 
BELIEF.  This  marked  another  distinction  from  Juda- 
ism, which,  so,  far,  had  formulated  no  creed  and  had  no 
particular  theory  of  salvation.  The  Nicaean  Council 
condemned  the  teachings  of  one  Arius,  whose  idea  of 
God  was  closer  to  Judaism,  and  declared  the  equal  eter- 
nity and  divinity  of  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity 
with  more  decided  emphasis.  It  further  decided,  that 
the  Festival  of  Easter  (which  was  the  Jewish  Passover 
readapted  to  commemorate  the  resurrection  of  Jesus) 


CHRISTIANITY  THE  STATE  CHURCH  OF  ROME      183 

should  now  be  arranged  independently  of  the  Jewish 
calendar. 

The  policy  of  suppression  directed  against  Juda- 
ism commenced  by  Constantine  was  continued  with 
greater  ardor  by  his  son,  Constantius.  He  forbade  in- 
termarriage and  imposed  the  penalty  of  death  on  Jews 
who  made  proselytes  of  Christian  slaves.  He  even  pro- 
hibited their  converting  heathen  slaves.  Further  pro- 
hibitive acts  followed.  This  hostile  attitude  was  contin- 
ued for  centuries. 

Thus  the  Jews  in  the  Roman  Empire  were  trans- 
ferred from  a  heathen  to  a  Christian  regime.  Quietly 
they  continued  on  the  even  tenor  of  their  way  and 
prayed  with  greater  fervency  for  the  restoration  of 
home  and  liberty. 

It  became  necessary  for  Hillel  II.,  Palestinian  Patri- 
arch, in  359  A.  c.  E.  to  establish  a  fixed  calendar  based 
on  that  of  Samuel  of  Babylon,  to  guide  the  people  as  to 
the  time  of  celebrating  New  Moon  and  Festivals,  as 
in  these  troublous  times  they  could  not  always  either 
obtain  or  transmit  the  news.  But  the  "second"  day  of 
the  Festivals,  instituted  for  lands  outside  of  Palestine, 
now  no  longer  needed,  was  maintained  as  a  matter  of 
sentiment  and  is  maintained  still  in  conservative  Juda- 
ism. 

This  planning  of  a  Jewish  calendar  by  which  the 
Festivals  were  computed  perpetually  and  yet  kept  in 
their  natural  seasons,  was  a  wonderful  piece  of  astron- 
omical and  arithmetical  ingenuity.  For  a  lunar  year  of 
twelve  months  is  shorter  than  a  solar  year  of  three- 


184          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

hundred  and  sixty-five  and  a  quarter  days.  To  aver- 
age the  difference  and  thus  prevent,  for  example,  Pass- 
over eventually  occurring  in  Autumn  and  Tabernacles 
in  Spring,  an  additional  month  (second  Adar)  was 
added  seven  times  in  every  nineteen  years.  Further, 
the  calendar  had  to  be  so  devised  that  certain  Festivals 
should  not  fall  on  undesirable  days — for  example  to 
prevent  the  Day  of  Atonement  falling  on  Friday  or 
Sunday.  This  ancient  calendar  is  our  guide  still  for 
the  Jewish  year  and  has  never  been  revised. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Read  "Is  Catholicism  a  Baptized  Paganism  ?"  Forum 
Magazine.  ( 1 889) . 

Read  Article  "Catholicism,"  Jewish  Encyclopedia, 
Vol.  III. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

THE  DIVISION  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

But  a  brief  check  was  made  on  Christian  advance  and 
its  pitiless  attempt  to  suppress  Judaism  in  the  coming 
to  the  throne  of  Julian  in  361.  This  Emperor  did  not 
endorse  the  new  religion,  but  accepted  the  old  Roman 
cult  of  the  Pantheon,  though  in  its  most  idealized  form, 
desiring  not  to  abolish  it,  but  to  purify  it.  But  it  was 
too  late ;  it  had  been  weighed  in  the  balance  and  found 
wanting. 

Julian,  whom  the  Church  styled  "the  Apostate,"  was 


THE    DIVISION    OF    THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE  185 

both  tolerant  and  philanthropic,  and  a  man  who  fos- 
tered learning.  As  between  Christianity  and  Judaism, 
though  bred  in  the  former,  to  which  he  continued  to 
grant  perfect  freedom  of  observance,  his  inclination 
turned  rather  toward  the  latter,  and  he  held  it  in  high 
esteem.  Naturally,  he  removed  the  restrictive  laws  and 
special  taxes  against  Judaism,  imposed  by  his  prede- 
cessors. He  even  took  steps  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem.  The  Jews  were  transported 
with  delight  and  began  at  once  sending  contributions 
toward  its  erection  with  greater  zeal  than  was  even 
shown,  according  to  Scripture,  by  that  generation  in 
the  wilderness  in  their  gifts  toward  the  Tabernacle. 
The  Christians  looked  on  with  consternation,  and  re- 
garded every  unfavorable  interruption  as  the  miracu- 
lous intervention  of  heaven.  Not  a  supposed  miracle 
however,  but  a  real  event,  brought  the  project  to 
nought.  Julian  died  on  the  battlefield. 

In  the  meantime  Rome  was  failing  fast.  The  con- 
flict for  the  throne  on  the  death  of  each  new  Emperor, 
already  mentioned,  showed  that  the  Empire  was  crum- 
bling from  within.  Long  before  the  days  of  Con- 
stantine  armies  were  setting  up  their  generals  to  the 
Imperial  dignity  all  over  the  Empire.  The  throne  was 
propped  up  a  little  longer  by  gaudy  trappings,  but  this 
meant  heavier  taxation  and  further  slavery.  Finally 
the  overgrown  and  undermined  body  split  in  twain, 
each  half  maintaining  a  separate  existence.  Byzan- 
tium, afterwards  called  Constantinople,  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Empire  of  the  East,  with  Rome  still  as  the 
centre  of  the  Western  half.  The  division  was  finally 


l86         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

completed  in  the  year  395  with  Arcadus  as  the  East- 
ern and  Honorius  as  the  Western  Emperor.  Although 
both  were  Christians,  the  dual  empires  were  menaced 
by  too  many  enemies  from  without  to  have  the  leisure 
to  renew  the  anti-Jewish  laws. 

The  influx  of  barbarians,  as  all  people  outside  of 
Rome  were  called,  now  came  thick  and  fast.  While 
some  were  absorbed  in  a  friendly  way,  impressed  with 
Rome's  grandeur,  and  even  served  in  its  army,  the 
Empire  was  too  decayed  for  such  a  peaceful  solu- 
tion. Even  before  the  division,  Julian  had  to  keep  off 
the  incursions  of  the  Franks  and  Alemanni  (Germans). 
Theodosius,  called  the  Great,  fought  against  destiny 
and  therefore  fought  in  vain.  The  Goths,  driven  by  the 
Huns,  a  Scythian  people  from  Tartary,  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Attila,  crossed  the  Danube  into  the  Roman 
territory  as  refugees;  but  cruelly  treated  became  ene- 
mies and  began  devastating  the  Eastern  part  of  the 
Empire.  Alaric  in  410  sacked  the  imperial  city.  The 
Goths,  to  whom  after  much  fighting,  Rome  granted 
important  concessions,  also — like  Rome — fell  into  two 
divisions — the  Ostragoths  (Eastern),  who  settled  on 
the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Visigoths  (Western),  who  oc- 
cupied Dacia  from  the  Dnieper  to  the  Danube. 

Let  us  complete  this  general  survey.  Already  hordes 
of  Suevi,  Burgundians,  Alemanni  and  Vandals  had 
invaded  Gaul  and  set  up  a  Vandal  Empire  in  Spain, 
where  they  contended  with'  the  Visigoths  for  control. 
Genseric  (called  the  scourge  of  God)  invaded  Africa 
in  429  and  devastated  the  coast  from  Gibraltar  to  Car- 
thage. It  was  he,  by  the  way,  who  seized  the  Temple 


THE   DIVISION    OF   THE  ROMAN    EMPIRE  187 

vessels  that  Titus  had  taken  from  Jerusalem.  They 
had  passed,  like  their  first  owners,  through  many  vi- 
cissitudes. Next  the  Huns  began  laying  waste  the 
Western  Empire,  though  finally  defeated  by  the  Gothic 
king,  Theodoric.  At  last  Odoacer  in  476.  at  the  head 
of  barbarian  mercenaries,  dethroned  the  last  Emperor, 
and  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West  came  to  an  end 
in  that  year. 

Now  that  Christianity  held  the  reins  of  power,  its 
pulpits  began  to  regard  it  as  part  of  their  function  to 
preach  against  Judaism;  even  such  renowned  Church 
Fathers  as  Chrysostom  of  Antioch  and  Ambrose  of 
Milan.  The  people  at  large  often  burned  synagogues  or 
turned  them  into  churches,  for  numbers  and  prestige 
were  now  on  their  side.  But  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
I  protected  the  Jews.  Later  Bishop  Cyril  cruelly  drove 
the  Jews  out  of  Alexandria.  No  redress  was  made  to 
them  for  loss  of  home  and  property.  His  disciples, 
following  this  barbarous  precedent,  seized  the  cultured 
Hypatia,  a  teacher  of  Platonic  philosophy,  whose  rare 
learning  had  made  her  home  a  gathering-place  for  stu- 
dents and  scholars,  and  the  fanatic  crowd  rent  her 
limb  from  limb.  .j 

But  let  us  not  forget  it  was  a  bigoted  and  savage 
age.  In  mentioning  the  cruelly  fanatic  bishops,  let  us 
not  forget  the  kind  ones — Bishop  Hilary  of  Poictiers 
(in  Gaul),  at  whose  funeral  the  sympathetic  Jews  ex- 
pressed their  sorrow  in  the  recital  of  Hebrew  Psalms. 

WitTi  Theodosius  II,  Emperor  of  the  Eastern  divi- 
sion of  the  Roman  Empire,  who  came  to  the  Byzantine 


1 88         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

throne  in  408,  began  the  systematic  restraint  of  Juda- 
ism— the  harsh  discrimination  against  them  before 
the  law.  The  Jews  were  prohibited  from  building  new 
synagogues,  from  exercising  jurisdiction  between  Chris- 
tian and  Jew  and  from  owning  Christian  slaves.  The 
bishops  and  clergy  began  fomenting  attacks  in  different 
localities,  forcing  baptism  on  some  by  threat.  Ulti- 
mately the  Patriarchate  of  Judea  was  abolished  in  425 
after  the  Hillel  family  had  enjoyed  this  dignity  for 
three  and  a  half  centuries. 

Christianity  now  developed  ascetics  who  went  to 
grotesque  extremes  and  imposed  absurd  privations 
upon  themselves  to  express  religious  zeal.  Some  con- 
demned themselves  to  stand  on  pillars — hence  called 
"pillar  saints";  some,  to  live  as  hermits  in  the  desert. 
But  with  them  all  Jewish  persecution  was  deemed  a 
kind  of  piety,  the  logic  being  that  Jewish  beliefs  were 
opposed  to  the  truth  and  the  Jews  were  the  enemies  of 
God.  The  most  famous  of  these  pillar  saints  was  Sim- 
eon, surnamed  Stylites,  meaning  pillar. 

In  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West  under  Emperor 
Honorius,  Jews  were  excluded  from  most  public  of- 
fices. The  monies  hitherto  contributed  both  from  East 
and  West  to  maintain  the  Patriarchate  were  now  de- 
manded to  be  continued  as  a  Jewish  State  tax.  Thus 
did  Christian  Rome  follow  the  precedent  of  pagan 
Rome.  This  was  the  kind  of  treatment  that  they  were 
now  to  meet  in  all  Christian  lands,  marking  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Jewish  Middle  Ages. 

Still  Christian  divines  were  glad  enough  to  sit  at 
the  feet  of  Jewish  scholars  and  learn  from  them  the 


THE     TALMUD  189 

Hebrew  tongue.  In  this  way  Jerome  was  enabled  to 
make  from  the  Hebrew  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible 
in  Latin.  It  was  called  the  Vulgate  (Latin  Vulgata, 
for  public  use).  It  has  remained  the  authorized  trans- 
lation for  the  Catholic  Church  to  this  day. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Read  The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Bryce;  Chapters  II 
and  III.  (Burt,  New  York.) 

Read  Hypatia,  Kingsley. 

On  the  Emperor  Julian's  relations  with  the  Jews, 
especially  with  regard  to  his  proposition  of  rebuilding 
the  Temple,  see  two  articles  in  the  Jewish  Quarterly 
Review  (Vols.  V.  and  X.). 


CHAPTER     XXXIV. 

THE  TALMUD. 

The  times  were  so  uncertain  in  Babylonia  as  well 
as  in  Judea  that  the  Jews  felt  it  necessary  now  to  col- 
lect and  ivrite  down  their  varied  traditions  and  laws. 
They  could  no  longer  trust  the  transmission  by  word 
of  mouth ;  they  could  no  longer  rely  on  their  memories, 
marvelous  though  they  were,  and  though  further  aided 
by  a  mnemonic  grouping  of  the  Halachas.  So  they 
were  reluctantly  compelled  to  overcome  their  senti- 
mental objection  to  writing  down  these  traditions — 
which  from  the  very  title,  Oral  Law,  implied  that  they 
should  be  transmitted  from  mouth  to  mouth,  inscribed 


»9°          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

only  on  the  tablets  of  the  mind.  Perhaps,  too,  they 
felt  that  writing  would  crystallize  the  Halachath  at 
the  point  where  they  were  transcribed  into  unchange- 
able dicta  and  prevent  their  further  development.  For 
while  unwritten,  they  were  fluid  and  could  be  modified 
from  age  to  age.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  writing 
down  of  the  laws  did  tend  to  crystallize  them,  and  thus 
hampered  the  progressive  growth  of  Jewish  Law. 

The  work  of  codifying  and  writing  down  the  Oral 
Law  was  commenced  by  Rabbana  Ashi  about  the  year 
400.  Placed  at  the  head  of  the  declining  Academy  of 
Sura,  he  breathed  new  life  into  it.  His  knowledge 
won  him  both  esteem  and  authority  such  as  had  been 
granted  to  Rabbi  Juda  Hanasi,  compiler  of  the  Mishna 
in  Palestine  about  two  hundred  years  earlier.  But 
Rabbi  Ashi's  was  a  vaster  task — the  compiling  of  all 
supplementary  laws  that  had  grown  out  of  the  Mishna 
proper  and  from  all  the  Mishna  collections  in  the  course 
of  two  hundred  years.  It  included,  too,  the  discussion 
and  incidental  material  that  revealed  the  original  proc- 
ess of  deduction.  This  vast  after-growth  or  commen- 
tary was  called  Gemara,  which  means  completion.  To- 
gether with  the  Mishna,  which  formed  the  text,  it  was 
called  the  TALMUD.  This  commentary,  Gemara,  is 
far  bulkier  than  the  Mishna.  Sometimes  a  few  lines 
of  Mishna  would  call  for  pages  and  pages  of  Gemara. 

For  about  half  a  century  Rabbana  Ashi  and  his  dis- 
ciples, particularly  Rabina,  labored  on  this  gigantic 
task.  The  completed  work  was  called  the  Babylonian 
Talmud,  as  it  was  not  only  written  in  Babylonia,  but 
contained  largely  the  decisions  attained  in  the  Baby- 


THE    TALMUD 

Ionian  schools.  Though  do  not  forget  that  its  Mishna 
text  was  written  in  Palestine.  The  final  touches  were 
made  by  Rabbi  Jose  about  the  year  500.  It  contains 
twelve  folio  volumes  or  2,947  leaves. 

A  similar  work  had  been  done  in  Judea  about  380. 
This  Judean  commentary  was  called  the  Jerusalem 
(Palestinian)  Talmud,  and  was  but  a  quarter  of  its 
size.  Outside  of  Boraitha  quotation,  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  is  written  in  Aramaic.  Whether  it  originally 
contained  commentary  or  all  Mishna  we  cannot  say; 
but  in  the  copies  now  extant  there  are  only  the  first 
four  Sedarim  and  some  commentaries  on  a  few  addi- 
tional chapters.  For  this  reason  it  is  a  much  smaller 
and  less  important  work.  Indeed,  when  we  speak  of 
the  Talmud,  we  usually  mean  the  Talmud  Babli. 

As  to  the  language  of  the  Talmud :  The  Mishna 
is  written  in  Hebrew,  and  so  too  are  some  of  the  older 
quotations  in  the  Gemara.  But  the  bulk  of  the  Gemara 
is  written  in  a  dialect  of  Aramaic — we  might  say  in 
Juedisch- Aramaic,  just  as  we  speak  of  Juedisch- 
Deutsch  to-day. 

As  to  its  contents — Gemara  on  some  of  the  Mishnas 
is  here  also  lacking  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud — never- 
theless it  is  an  immense  work.  The  two  great  divisions 
of  Halacha  and  Hagada  have  already  been  explained  in 
the  chapter  on  the  Mishna.  It  will  be  understood  at 
once  then  that  the  Talmud  is  not  merely  a  code  of  laws 
for  Jewish  guidance,  though  primarily  that  is  its  pur- 
pose. It  also  gives  us,  though  incidentally,  an  insight 
into  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews,  their  theo- 
logical views  and  general  reflections  on  life;  their  hopes 


192          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

and  their  sufferings  for  a  period  of  some  six  hundred 
years — "A  work  in  which  a  whole  people  had  deposited 
its  feelings,  its  beliefs,  its  soul."  We  have  fragments 
of  biography  of  Jewish  scholars,  bits  of  inner  history 
under  Roman  and  Persian  rule,  homely  philosophy 
of  the  sages;  glimpses  too  of  their  weaknesses  and 
occasionally  of  their  superstitions  and  their  mysticism 
— all  the  more  faithful  because  unconsciously  por- 
trayed. Interspersed  between  their  legal  discussions 
will  be  found  an  anecdote,  an  abstract  thought  of  the 
rabbi  whose  decision  is  quoted,  a  bit  of  humor,  a  pic- 
ture of  Oriental  civilization.  As  direct  outgrowth  of 
many  of  their  ritual  arguments,  we  are  introduced  to 
their  science;  astronomy  and  mathematics  in  the  draw- 
ing up  of  their  calendar;  botany  in  their  agricultural 
laws ;  hygiene,  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  Shechita 
laws  (slaughtering  animals  for  food)  ;  and  natural  his- 
tory and  medicine  in  various  ways.  There  is  of  course 
very  unequal  value  in  their  data,  and  naturally  they 
shared  many  of  the  limitations  of  their  time. 

The  legal  discussions  in  themselves  reveal  keen  men- 
tal acumen,  subtle  logic,  vivid  sense  of  justice  and 
philanthropy  and  touches  of  vindictiveness  too — wrung 
from  them  in  the  hour  of  agony.  The  study  of  the 
Talmud  was  to  become  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
Jews  for  many  centuries.  It  was  a  world  in  itself  in 
which  they  lived  and  in  which  they  could  forget  the 
cruel  world  without.  Its  study  reacted  on  their  char- 
acter. First  the  Jew  made  the  Talmud,  then  the  Tal- 
mud made  the  Jew. 

Like  the  Bible,  the  Talmud  produced  a  literature 


THE   TALMUD  193 

] 

still  vaster  than  itself.  While  the  Gemara  is  a  com- 
mentary, it  needed  later  commentaries  to  explain  it  to 
the  student — for  although  so  diffuse|  its  language  is 
stenographically  terse.  Therefore  in  editions  of  the 
Talmud  to-day,  Mishna  and  Gemara  together  form 
the  text  and  are  printed  in  the  centre  of  each  page, 
while  commentaries  in  smaller  type  are  grouped 
around  it.  Since  the  days  of  printing  all  editions  are 
paged  alike. 

After  the  completion  of  the  Talmud  the  work  of  the 
Academies  became  preservative  rather  than  creative. 
While  not  adding  to  the  laws  now  gathered  in  the 
Talmud,  the  rabbis  reviewed  them  and  formulated 
from  them  a  complete  code  for  practical  application. 
This  tended  to  give  a  finality  to  the  laws  so  far  evolved, 
which  had  both  its  good  and  bad  side.  This  under- 
taking gave  to  this  school  of  final  redactors  the  name 
of  SABORAIM — revisers  or  critics — the  third  group 
of  law  expounders.  They  edited  the  Talmud  and  am- 
plified it  with  Agadistic  material  and  finally  brought 
it  down  into  the  form  in  which  we  have  it  to-day. 

At  this  time  a  knowledge  of  grammar  was  brought 
to  Persia  from  Greece,  which  resulted  in  the  important 
service  of  introducing  vowel  points  and  accents.  This 
tended  to  simplify  the  study  of  Hebrew  Scriptures 
and  made  the  text  more  certain. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

See  two  pamphlets  on  the  Talmud  issued  by  the 
Jewish  Publication  Society ;  one  by  Emanuel  Deutsch, 
and  the  other,  the  more  critical,  by  Darmesteter. 


194          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

The  ethics  of  the  Talmud  have  been  touched  upon 
incidentally  in  preceding  chapters.  For  a  systematic 
treatment  read  Part  IV.,  Outlines  of  Talmudic  Ethics, 
in  Mielziner's  Introduction  to  the  Talmud.  See  also 
Ethics  of  Judaism,  Lazarus  (translation)  Jewish  Pub- 
lication Society. 


BOOK  IT. 
JAPHETH  AND  8HEM 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  JEWISH  MIDDLEAGES     1 97 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  JEWISH  MIDDLE  AGES. 

At  the  opening  of  the  Sixth  Century,  Mazdak,  a 
new  zealot  for  the  religion  of  the  Magi  in  Babylonia, 
about  the  year  500  tried  to  impose  on  all  under  his  rule 
certain  dangerous  doctrines  of  his  own  that  tended  to 
undermine  the  moral  foundations  of  society.  Natural- 
ly the  Jews,  always  normally  a  chaste  people,  stoutly 
resisted.  This  meant  fight.  Again  must  they  lay  down 
the  book  for  the  sword,  or  rather,  take  up  the  sword 
for  the  cause  of  the  Book.  Led  by  the  Resh  Gelutha 
Mar  Zutra  II,  they  actually  succeeded  in  throwing  off 
the  Persian  yoke  altogether  for  some  seven  years ;  but 
they  were,  of  course,  ultimately  brought  into  subjec- 
tion, and  consequently  many  martyrs  were  added  to 
the  Jewish  roll  of  honor. 

So,  for  the  time  being  the  Jews  were  between  the 
two  fires  of  Christian  and  Magian  intolerance. 

In  Judea,  *n  fact  in  the  whole  Eastern-Byzantine 
Empire,  which  included  all  Roman  conquests  in  Asia, 
Eastern  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  life  for  the  Jew 
grew  still  more  precarious.  In  many  Palestinian  towns, 
notably  Caesarea  and  Antioch,  insurrections  broke  out, 
usually  during  the  circus  races.  Ravages  against  the 
Jews  were  actually  endorsed  by  the  Emperor  Zeno. 
Churches  were  everywhere  replacing  synagogues  in 
the  land  which  had  once  been  theirs,  and  Jerusalem  be- 
came an  archbishopric  where  Jews  were  not  even  ad- 
mitted. 


A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Under  Justinian,  anti-Jewish  legislation  was  sys- 
tematized. He  was  the  Emperor  who  became  famous 
because  of  the  digest  of  Roman  law,  accomplished  in 
his  reign,  in  the  year  541.  His  theory  was — "one  re- 
ligion, one  law,  one  state."  Against  the  fulfillment  of 
such  an  ideal  the  Jews  stood,  so  to  speak,  as  an  obsta- 
cle. Therefore  the  laws  of  this  digest,  that  concern 
them,  are  severe.  Among  these  was  the  provision  that 
Jewish  witnesses  could  not  testify  against  Christians. 
Justinian,  who  further  made  them  bear  the  expense 
of  the  magistrate  office  without  its  privileges,  also  for- 
bade their  celebrating  Passover  prior  to  Easter!  He 
even  went  so  far  as  to  prohibit  the  recital  of  the  Shema 
since  it  was  a  protest  against  the  Trinity!  Further- 
more, he  tried  so  to  modify  the  Synagogue  service 
that  it  might  encourage  Christian  ideas.  Altogether 
there  was  rather  a  monotony  of  suffering  under  Byzan- 
tine rule,  but  it  was  saved  from  being  sordid  by  the 
knowledge  of  the  cause  for  which  they  suffered.  While 
their  deep  faith  that  Providence  would  ultimately  usher 
in  a  glorious  dawn  if  they  were  but  patiently  loyal, 
saved  them  from  despair.  Under  the  Byzantine  rule 
at  its  best  they  were  left  contemptuously  to  themselves 
and  were  granted  a  certain  autonomy  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  communal  affairs. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  Sixth  Century,  Persia  and 
Byzantium  entered  into  a  struggle  for  the  possession 
of  Palestine  in  which  the  Jews  took  an  active  part  and 
supported  the  Persians,  who,  on  the  whole,  had  treated 
them  more  humanely.  Under  the  leadership  of  one 
Benjamin,  Judea  had  gathered  an  army  once  more. 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  JEWISH  MIDDLE AGES      199 

The  Persians,  however,  were  ungrateful  to  these  allies, 
and  when  victory  seemed  to  be  theirs,  not  only  refused 
to  cede  Jerusalem  according  to  promise  and  for  which 
the  Jews  had  so  longingly  hoped,  but  even  imposed  op- 
pressive taxes  upon  them.  How  cruel  the  world  is  to 
minorities !  Further  ill-treatment  induced  many  to  en- 
ter under  the  banner  of  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Hera- 
clius  in  627,  and  by  solemn  treaty  he  promised  them 
immunity  from  all  punishment. 

Fortune  turned  in  his  favor.  Persia  withdrew.  The 
monks  now  urged  the  triumphant  Emperor  to  extir- 
pate the  Jews  from  Palestine.  He  reminded  them  of 
his  solemn  promise  of  immunity  made"  to  them.  They 
told  him  that  a  promise  to  Jews  need  not  be  kept  and 
that  to  slay  them  would  be  an  act  of  piety.  Thus 
sanctioned,  he  began  a  severe  massacre.  Further,  the 
edicts  of  Hadrian  and  Constantine,  forbidding  Jews  to 
enter  Jerusalem  were  once  more  enforced  in  628.  But 
Judea  was  not  long  to  remain  in  Christian  hands. 

As  already  stated  in  Chapter  xxxiii.,  the  Western 
half  of  the  Roman  Empire  succumbed  to  Northern 
tribes  about  the  year  500.  The  Ostragoths,  led  by 
Theodoric,  became  masters  of  Italy,  the  Visigoths  of 
Spain,  the  Franks  and  Burgundians  of  Gaul — the  Gaul 
that  had  been  great  Csesar's  pride  to  conquer!  Here 
we  see  the  beginning  of  the  formation  of  the  nations  of 
Europe.  They  all  accepted  the  Roman  system  of  law 
and  government  to  a  modified  extent,  and  that  which 
now  became  the  Roman  religion  too — Christianity. 
So  the  victors  became  the  disciples  of  the  vanquished 


2OO         A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

— a  not  unusual  experience  in  history.  In  each  of 
these  lands  and  under  each  of  these  peoples,  Israel  was 
pretty  well  represented  by  the  Sixth  Century,  and  in 
each  they  had  a  distinct  history.  So,  in  continuing 
our  story  we  shall  have  to  follow  many  strands.  They 
were  treated  better  than  in  Byzantine  lands — at  least 
at  first. 

The  Ostragoths,  who  became  rulers  in  Italy,  were 
Arians.  The  other  group  of  Christians — the  Ortho- 
dox— called  themselves  Roman  Catholics.  Catholic 
means  universal.  You  have  already  been  told  that 
Christianity  claimed  to  be  a  universal  Church  and 
Rome  a  universal  Empire.  This  theological  monopoly 
did  sad  mischief  in  the  coming  centuries.  These  Arian 
Ostragoths  were  kinder  to  the  Jews  than  the  Catholics. 
The  greater  tolerance  of  the  Arians  may  perhaps  have 
been  due  to  the  fact  that  their  idea  of  God  was  a  little 
closer  to  that  of  the  Jewish  conception.  These  two 
divisions  of  Christendom  were  certainly  very  bitter 
against  each  other.  When  a  Byzantine  army  threat- 
ened the  Ostragoths,  the  Jews  loyally  stood  by  those 
who,  if  they  had  not  treated  them  generously,  had 
treated  them  justly.  Later  we  find  the  Jews  defending 
the  sea-coast  of  Naples  for  the  Ostragoths  in  536. 
Only  when  overwhelmed  by  superior  numbers  did 
they  at  last  surrender. 

Italy  became  a  Byzantine  province,  so  these  West- 
ern Jews  also  found  themselves  under  the  Emperor 
Justinian's  sway.  In  589  most  of  Italy  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Lombards,  a  tribe  that  had  come  from 
the  Elbe  with  the  rest  of  the  Northern  groups  about 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  JEWISH  MIDDLE A.GES    2OI 

the  Fourth  Century.  They  now  became  both  wealthy 
and  powerful.  Arians  at  first,  they  were  won  over  to 
the  Orthodox  Faith.  Indeed,  Arian  Christianity  soon 
disappeared — just  as  in  the  early  days  of  the  Church, 
Jewish  Christians  were  absorbed  by  pagan  Christians. 

In  the  meantime  the  Roman  bishop  (overseer)  ac- 
quired power  over  all  bishops  in  other  Christian  cen- 
tres, and  became  the  head  of  the  Church  with  the  title 
POPE  (Greek- father).  In  the  course  of  time  these 
popes  exercised  immense  power,  and  we  shall  see  kings 
trembling  before  them.  For  they  came  to  be  regarded 
as  the  representative  of  God  on  earth.  Whoever  dared 
oppose  their  will  was  placed  under  the  ban.  Then  all 
shrunk  from  the  excommunicated  creature  as  from  a 
person  smitten  with  leprosy,  for  the  superstitious  age 
regarded  him  accursed  and  doomed.  Very  terrible 
was  it  when  this  dangerous  power  was  in  the  hands 
of  an  unscrupulous  Pope,  which  not  infrequently  hap- 
pened. But  there  were  many  good  Popes,  too,  and 
the  Tews  found  among  them,  as  we  shall  see,  friends 
as  well  as  foes. 

Gregory  I.,  one  of  the  earliest  and  also  one  of  the 
greatest,  would  not  allow  his  bishops  to  molest  the 
Jews,  though  he  offered  the  bribe  of  remission  of 
taxes  for  their  conversion. 

Slavery  was  still  a  recognized  institution  of  society, 
due  in  part  to  constant  warfare,  the  daily  business  of 
life  and  to  the  custom  of  enslaving  prisoners  of  war. 
So,  slaves  were  in  nearly  every  household  and  in  the 
fields,  taking  the  place  of  the  humble  toilers  of  to-day. 
Still  we  are  sorry  to  find  the  Jews  so  active  in  this 


202  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

traffic  of  individuals,  though  they  often  converted  them 
to  Judaism  and  in  all  cases  were  kinder  to  them  than 
most  masters.  For  the  Jewish  slave-laws  were  the 
most  humane.  Turn  to  Exodus  xxi.  and  Deut. 
xxiii.,  and  you  will  find  more  consideration  shown 
to  the  slaves  and  the  rights  even  of  non-Hebrew  bond- 
men were  better  protected  than  were  the  slaves  of  civil- 
ized lands  a  few  generations  ago.  Gregory  vigorously 
objected — not  to  slavery,  but  to  the  enslaving  of  Chris- 
tians, and  particularly  to  the  possession  of  Christian 
slaves  by  Jews.  The  Church  greatly  feared  that  by 
proselytizing  their  slaves  the  Jews  might  increase 
their  numbers.  This  was  to  be  prevented  at  any  cost. 

If  the  question  were  asked  why  Jews  came  largely 
to  deal  in  slaves,  the  answer  would  be  because  they 
were  becoming  largely  dealers  in  general.  It  is  then 
part  of  a  larger  question — how  came  the  Jews  to  seek 
commerce  as  a  means  of  livelihood  ?  First,  by  the  law 
of  necessity.  Most  other  avenues  of  activity  were  be- 
ing closed  to  them.  Not  permitted  to  own  lands,  they 
could  hardly  be  agriculturists.  Gradually  the  army, 
the  public  service  and  most  of  the  professions  were 
forbidden  to  Jews. 

Secondly,  their  dispersion  through  the  world  had 
its  compensating  advantages.  United  to  their  brethren 
by  close  fraternal  ties  and  speaking  a  common  tongue, 
the  exchange  of  commodities  was  facilitated.  Then 
having  smaller  opportunities  of  expenditure  and  in  any 
case  possessing  moderate  tastes,  they  naturally  pos- 
sessed ready  means.  This  is  all  there  was  in  the  Me- 
diaeval belief  in  the  wealth  of  the  Jews. 


IN    THE    SPANISH    PENINSULA  2Q$ 

Lastly,  the  hard  fate  of  their  ancestors  in  their  lands; 
of  exile,  the  growing  precariousness  of  their  position- 
under  fanatic  powers,  quickened  their  wits  in  the  life 
struggle  and  endowed  them  with  the  capacities  that 
earn  success  in  trade.  We  are  not  therefore  surprised 
to  learn  that  the  Jews  invented  bills  of  exchange. 

rC 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

Read  Chapter  VI. — The  Slave  Trade — in  Jewish 
Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Abrahams.  (Jewish  Pub- 
lication Society.) 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

IN  THE   SPANISH   PENINSULA. 

Following  the  line  of  survey  of  Mediaeval  Jews  from 
East  to  West,  from  Babylonia  to  Judea,  and  then  from 
Byzantium  to  Italy,  let  us  now  take  a  cursory  glance 
at  their  position  in  Western  Europe.  In  Gaul,  the  land 
that  is  largely  France  to-day,  Jewish  merchants  from 
Asia  Minor  had  found  their  way  long  before  the  Chris- 
tian Era.  After  the  fall  of  Judea,  many  Jewish  prison- 
ers and  slaves  were  brought  thither.  The  first  places 
of  settlement  were  Aries,  Narbonne,  Marseilles,  Or- 
leans and  Paris.  We  find  them  in  Belgium  too. 

The  inhabitants  of  Gaul  now  were  Franks.  The 
Franks  (free  men)  were  a  confederacy  formed  about 
240  A.  c.  E.  of  tribes  dwelling  on  the  Lower  Rhine 
and  the  Weser.  They  invadecf  Gaul  and  Spain  and 


204          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

reached  Africa.  The  Prankish  Empire  was  not  one 
central  government,  but  was  subdivided  into  several 
monarchies.  But  under  nearly  all  the  Jews  enjoyed 
the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship. 

We  find  the  Jewish  industries  varied,  including  agri- 
culture, all  kinds  of  commerce  and  medicine,  in  which 
they  had  been  early  distinguished.  Some  were  soldiers 
too,  for  the  restraints  of  the  Church  had  not  yet  reached 
these  shores.  Even  when  Christianity  was  first  intro- 
duced by  the  warrior  Clovis,  Jews  and  Christians  min- 
gled freely  and  held  cordial  relations;  though  the  Jew- 
ish dietary  laws  occasionally  caused  embarrassment 
and  ill-will  when  Jews  sat  at  Christian  tables.  It  was 
the  higher  clergy  who  began  to  look  upon  these  cordial 
relations  with  misgiving  and  to  discourage  them.  In 
this  way  hatred  was  artificially  fostered  by  the  Church. 
Not  till  the  beginning  of  the  Sixth  Century  did  a  Chris- 
tian king  of  Burgundy  begin  to  discriminate  unfavor- 
ably against  the  Jews,  and  to  break  off  kindly  relations 
by  forbidding  Christians  to  sit  at  Jewish  tables.  Soon 
the  Church  Councils  began  to  issue  severe  anti-Jewish 
edicts.  So  in  different  states  and  towns  within  the 
Empire  we  find  restrictions  such  as  these  gradually 
introduced:  Jews  must  not  make  proselytes;  must 
not  "insult"  Christians  by  showing  themselves  in  the 
streets  on  Easter;  they  must  not  be  permitted  to  serve 
as  judges  or  as  tax-farmers. 

Their  worst  enemy  at  this  time  was  Bishop  Avitus. 
He  first  tried  to  convert  them  by  sermons.  Persuasion 
failing  he  resorted  to  violence  and  incited  a  mob  to 
burn  their  synagogues.  Their  fanaticism  once  fed,  the 


IN    THE    SPANISH    PENINSULA  2O5 

masses  fell  upon  the  Jews  and  massacre  began.  Bap- 
tism was  accepted  by  several  in  order  to  save  their 
lives — others  escaped  to  Marseilles. 

So  far  Gaul.  Let  us  now  turn  to  Spain,  or  rather 
to  the  Peninsula,  for  Portugal  was  not  yet  a  separate 
kingdom,  and  what  is  now  the  South  of  France  was 
also  included  in  the  Visigothic  Empire.  While  the 
Jews  were  early  settled  in  the  lancls  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope, in  very  remote  antiquity — too  early  even  to  trace 
— they  were  brought  in  considerable  numbers  after  the 
Judean  War  of  70,  and  were  soon  redeemed  by  their 
sympathizing  brethren.  As  in  Gaul,  so  here  the  Visi- 
goths, being  of  the  broader  Arian  school,  regarded  the 
Jews  with  cordiality  and  esteem,  and  their  superior 
knowledge  gained  for  them  public  positions  of  honor 
and  trust. 

So  we  find  the  public-spirited  Jews  defending  the 
passes  of  the  Pyrenees  against  the  inroads  of  the  Franks 
and  Burgundians  and  winning  distinction  by  their 
courage  and  trustworthiness.  How  patriotic  the  Jew 
always  becomes  when  given  the  barest  tolerance,  we 
shall  see  right  through  their  history. 

Nor  did  they  forget  their  religion,  but  became  faith- 
ful disciples  of  teachers  sent  them  from  the  Babylonian 
schools.  For  their  well-wishing  neighbors  did  not  in- 
terfere with  their  complete  observance  of  the  precepts 
of  their  Faith. 

But  as  soon  as  the  Orthodox  Christians — i.  e.,  the 
Roman  Catholics — obtained  the  upper  hand,  the  higher 
clergy  behaving  identically  like  those  in  Gaul,  began 
to  sow  the  seeds  of  mistrust  in  the  hearts  of  the  people, 


206          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

and  forbade  as  sin  close  intercourse  with  Jews.  Soon 
the  usual  disabilities  followed,  the  unfair  discrimina- 
tion to  handicap  the  Jews  in  the  race  of  life.  How 
Jewish  history  repeats  itself! 

Their  height  of  misery  was  reached  when  one  Sise- 
but  came  to  the  throne  in  612.  Jews  were  now  pro- 
hibited from  holding  slaves,  though  held  by  all  others 
and  forming  a  necessary  class  in  the  restricted  civiliza- 
tion of  the  age.  The  climax  was  reached  when  he  of- 
fered them  the  alternative  of  baptism  or  expulsion. 
Some  found  the  sacrifice  of  land,  home  and  posses- 
sions too  great  and  externally  submitted  to  a  Faith  that 
cruel  experience  had  taught  them  to  abhor.  Very 
many  became  exiles.  Under  his  successor,  Swintilla, 
who  repealed  the  harsh  laws,  the  exiles  returned  to  the 
land  and  the  converts  to  Judaism.  But  the  Church 
Council  re-enacted  the  unnatural  command  of  forced 
baptism  and  the  returned  converts  were  compelled  to 
become  Christians  again.  What  sort  of  Christians 
could  they  become  under  such  conditions?  But  most 
cruel  enactment  of  all — to  think  that  a  religious  council 
should  have  proposed  it — their  children  were  torn  from 
them  and  placed  in  monasteries  to  become  completely 
estranged  from  both  their  Faitli  and  their  kindred. 
This  hard  law  was  mitigated  however  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  powerful  Visigothic  nobles. 

Again  a  king  occupied  the  throne  who  offered  the 
remaining  Jews  the  alternative  of  exile  or  baptism. 
Again  they  submitted  to  banishment.  Once  more  they 
were  allowed  to  return,  though'  under  many  restric- 


IN  THE   SPANISH   PENINSULA  *07 

tions.  But  the  forced  converts  were  held  in  the  Church 
with  an  iron  grip  while — strange  limitation — they  had 
yet  to  pay  the  Jewish  tax!  In  secret  and  peril  they 
still  continued  to  observe  the  Jewish  festivals.  But 
the  spies  of  the  Church  soon  discovered  the  double 
life  and  compelled  them  to  spend  Jewish  and  Christian 
holidays  away  from  their  homes  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  clergy.  After  a  few  years  in  which  this  cruel 
vigilance  was  relaxed,  King  Erwig  won  over  the  clergy 
to  his  support  by  reinstating  this  Jewish  persecution 
with  more  violence  than  all  his  predecessors.  Now 
baptism  was  demanded,  with  confiscation,  mutilization 
and  exile  as  the  penalty  of  its  rejection.  The  Jewish 
Christians  who  had  secretly  clung  to  Judaism  right 
through,  were  placed  under  complete  clerical  espion- 
age. These  abortive  edicts  were  passed  in  68 1.  The 
next  king,  Egica,  "bettered  the  instruction"  of  his  pre- 
decessor. Jews  were  now  forbidden  to  hold  landed 
property,  to  trade  with  the  Continent,  or  do  business 
with  Christians.  In  their  despair,  they  entered  into 
a  conspiracy  against  the  barbaric  government,  were 
discovered,  and  nearly  aH  the  Jews  of  Spain  reduced 
to  slavery. 

But  relief  was  to  come  from  an  unexpected  source. 
A  new  religion,  Mohammedanism,  had  been  brought 
to  life  and  soon  became  a  great  power  in  the  world. 
It  was  destined  to  change  for  centuries  the  fate  of  the 
Jews  of  the  Peninsula  and  transform  an  iron  to  a  gold- 
en age.  But  to  understand  this  movement,  we  must 


208          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

turn  to  Asia  once  more  and  look  into  the  life  of  a  new 
people — the  Arabians. 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES. 

This  age  produced  nothing  of  a  literary  character 
except  polemic  replies  in  Latin  to  works  written  at 
this  time  to  prove  Christianity  from  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures. 


CHAPTER     XXXVII. 

ARABIA. 

The  Peninsula  of  Arabia  is  bounded  on  the  south- 
west by  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  southeast  by  the  Indian 
Ocean,  on  the  northeast  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  on 
the  north  touches  the  mainland  of  Palestine  and  Syria, 
reaching  to  the  Euphrates.  So  that  we  might  say  it 
lies  between  three  continents.  It  is  divided  T3y  geog- 
raphers into  three  parts:  i.  Arabia  Felix  (fortu- 
nate)— the  largest — all  the  land  between  the  three  seas. 
2.  Arabia  Petraea  (stony) — the  end  adjoining  the 
Peninsula  of  Sinai.  3.  Arabia  Deserta — the  Desert 
between  Palestine  and  the  Euphrates.  The  old  Ishma- 
lites  used  to  dwell  in  Arabia  Deserta — scorched  by 
burning  sands,  with  scant  vegetation  and  brackish 
water.  The  Bedouins  were  brave,  hardy,  and  of  simple 
habits,  but  restless  and  rapacious.  The  description  of 
the  wild  ass  in  the  third  chapter  of  Job  well  fits  their 
character. 

The  character  of  the  land  made  the  building  of  cities 


ARABIA  2O9 

and  organized  society  impossible.  Conditions  encour- 
aged a  lawless  life  and  necessity,  rather  than  choice, 
tempted  them  to  attack  merchant  caravans.  A  French 
proverb  runs,  "To  know  all  is  to  excuse  all."  While 
not  endorsing  this  dangerous  maxim,  we  can  see  that 
their  home  largely  decided  their  character.  We  are 
all  influenced  by  surroundings  in  some  degree.  Yet 
some  make  the  most  of  even  hard  conditions  and  bar- 
ren soil.  Not  so  the  Bedouins.  They  never  rose  to 
greatness  religiously,  satisfied  to  worship  stars  and 
stones  and  gratify  the  wants  of  the  hour.  So  they 
have  not  advanced.  But  of  this  Arabs  of  Central  and 
Southern  Arabia  we  have  a  better  story  to  tell. 

Long  before  the  fall  of  the  Second  Temple — proba- 
bly before  the  fall  of  the  First — many  Jews  found  their 
way  to  Arabia.  By  the  time  they  made  their  presence 
felt  there  we  find  them  established  in  separate  groups 
or  tribes. 

There  were  many  points  of  kinship  between  Jews 
and  Arabians.  The  Bible  hints  this  in  making  Abra- 
ham the  father  of  both  peoples,  which  tradition  the 
Arabs  accepted  from  their  Jewish  neighbors.  Their 
kinship  was  farther  due  to  the  fact  that  they  both  be- 
longed to  the  same  race — the  Semitic.  The  Semites 
included — Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  Babylonians,  Syrians, 
Phoenicians,  Hebrews,  Arabs  and  Ethiopians.  In 
spite  of  the  religious  divergence,  the  Jews  adapted 
themselves — externally  at  least — to  the  Arabian  mode 
of  life.  It  is  a  nice  question  in  how  far  Jews  should 
assimilate  with  their  surroundings  and  in  how  far  stand 


210       A   THOUSAND   YEARS   OF  JEWISH    HISTORY. 

distinct.  So,  while  the  Jews  of  South  Arabia  engaged 
in  commerce,  those  of  the  less  civilized  North  were 
agriculturists  and  wandering  shepherds  like  their  Be- 
douin neighbors.  Like  them,  too,  some  even  form 
robber  bands.  Yet  here  at  least  we  meet  a  favorable 
variation  in  that  the  Jews  were  more  humane  to  their 
enemies.  Further,  the  Jews  adopted  the  patriarchal 
status  of  society  of  their  Arabian  environments — not 
so  dissimilar  to  the  social  life  depicted  in  Genesis — 
i.  e.,  each  group  of  families  lived  under  the  guidance 
of  one  patriarch  or  Sheik.  The  Sheik  was  a  kind  of 
king  and  his  will  was  obeyed  as  law  by  the  particular 
group  under  his  sway.  For  there  was  no  central  gov- 
ernment. In  unsettled  districts  hospitality  becomes  the 
greatest  virtue  because  it  represents  the  greatest  need. 
This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  Genesis  story  (Chapters 
xviii.  and  xix.)  of  the  contrasted  behavior  of  Abra- 
ham and  the  people  of  Sodom. 

The  religious  ideas  of  the  Arabians  while  not  gross 
were  primitive.  They  had  a  Holy  City,  later  known 
as  Mecca,  near  the  Red  Sea  border,  in  the  centre  of 
which  was  a  black  stone  called  the  Kaaba.  This  they 
no  doubt  worshipped  as  an  idol.  Indeed  three  hundred 
idols  were  associated  with  this  place.  While  fierce  in 
warfare,  in  which  they  frequently  engaged,  and  re- 
morseless in  revenge,  these  rough  tendencies  were  miti- 
gated by  the  institution  of  four  holy  months,  during 
which  the  taking  of  life  was  avoided. 

The  Jews  as  such  were  better  educated  than  the 
Arabs  and  may  have  taught  them  writing,  and  were 
altogether  looked  up  to  as  the  intellectual  superiors  of 


ARABIA  211 

the  Arabs.  Far  from  interfering  with  their  religion, 
the  Arabs  were  rather  prepared  to  take  the  position  of 
disciples.  They  adopted  some  Jewish  rites,  endorsed 
their  calendar,  and  Jewish  teaching  exercised  a  salu- 
tary influence  on  their  character.  Many  converts  came 
to  Judaism  unsought,  and  when  a  Sheik  accepted  Juda- 
ism, the  clan  followed.  Naturally,  under  such  favor- 
able auspices  the  Arabian  Jews  lived  up  to  their  re- 
ligion with  ardor  and  zeal,  though  it  did  not  receive 
the  highest  interpretation  in  their  hands.  They  turned 
for  guidance  in  the  fulfillment  of  the  Law  probably 
both  to  Judea  and  Babylonia.  They  had  their  school 
too  at  Yathrib,  later  called  Medina — north  of  Mecca 
and  likewise  near  the  Red  Sea.  But  the  Bible  was 
largely  brought  to  them  in  Midrashic  paraphrase. 

The  most  important  convert  to  Judaism  was  Jussuf, 
the  powerful  king  of  Yemen,  in  the  southwestern  quar- 
ter of  the  Peninsula — about  the  year  500  A.  c.  E.  The 
Jewish  sages  were  invited  to  teach  Judaism  to  the  peo- 
ple at  large.  The  enthusiastic  but  unwise  King  Jussuf, 
hearing  that  Jews  were  persecuted  in  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  put  to  death  some  of  its  merchants.  This 
only  paralyzed  trade  and  brought  on  war.  So  the  Jews 
were  hardly  fortunate  in  their  ally,  for  he  did  not  grasp 
the  spirit  of  Judaism  and  tried  to  impose  it  by  force — 
i.  e.,  by  the  sword.  This  recalls  the  forced  conversions 
of  John  Hyrcanus.  (See  Chapter  vu.)  Yussuf 
stirred  up  enemies  against  himself,  and  the  Jews  in 
many  surrounding  lands,  who  at  last  completely 
crushed  him.  Thus  ended  the  ill-starred  Jewish  king- 
dom. No,  Judaism  was  not  destined  to  spread  in  that 


212          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

way.    "Not  by  force,  not  by  power,  but  by  my  spirit, 
saith  the  Lord." 

Like  the  Arabs,  the  Jews  cultivated  poetry  and  held 
it  in  high  esteem.  Most  renowned  of  these  Jewish 
poets  was  Samuel  Ibn  Adiya,  who  flourished  in  Arabia 
about  the  same  time  as  the  Talmud  was  being  edited 
in  Babylonia.  His  life  is  perhaps  more  interesting  than 
his  poetry,  for  it  shows  how  this  stimulating  environ- 
ment at  its  best  encouraged  a  fine  spirit  of  chivalry 
among  the  Jews. 

For  Samuel  was  also  a  powerful  Sheik  in  whom  the 
weak  and  persecuted  always  confidently  sought  protec- 
tion. One  day  a  famous  Arabian  poet  and  prince,  pur- 
sued by  his  enemies,  sought  refuge  in  his  castle.  Go- 
ing forth  to  seek  the  aid  of  the  Byzantine  Emperor, 
Justinian,  he  entrusted  to  Samuel  his  daughter  and  his 
arms.  But  no  sooner  had  he  gone  than  his  enemies 
hastened  to  the  castle,  demanding  the  arms  from  Sam- 
uel. But  Samuel  would  not  break  his  promise,  so  the 
castle  was  besieged.  Obtaining  possession  of  one  of 
his  children,  the  savage  enemies  threatened  to  slay  it 
unless  the  arms  were  given  up.  It  was  an  agonizing 
alternative  to  the  father,  but  he  did  not  falter.  "Do 
what  you  will,  the  brothers  of  my  son  will  avenge  this 
deed."  So  at  that  awful  cost  the  trust  was  kept.  What 
wonder  that  an  Arabian  maxim  should  run,  "Faithful 
as  Samuel !"  Other  poets  sang  his  praise. 

But  we  must  pass  quickly  over  the  rest  of  this  epoch 
till  we  reach  the  end  of  the  Sixth  Century.  By  this  time 
Judaism  had  widely  spread  and  Jewish  colonies  were 
found  along  the  whole  northwestern  coast.  In  Medina 


MAHOMET  213 

their  numbers  were  particularly  large — consisting  of 
three  great  tribes.  They  had  built  their  own  villages 
and  fortified  strongholds. 

It  was  in  the  Sixth  Century  that  a  man  was  born 
whose  name,  MAHOMET,  was  to  ring  through  all 
Asia  and  whom  all  broad  minds  now  recognize  as  one 
of  the  great  religious  teachers  of  mankind.  Closely 
was  his  fate  linked  to  Israel's,  for  again  was  Judaism 
to  inspire  a  prophet  and  give  birth  to  another  world 
religion. 

CHAPTER     XXXVIII. 

i 
MAHOMET. 

Mahomet,  to  name  him  by  the  title  that  he  after- 
wards acquired,  was  born  in  the  year  570  in  Mecca, 
and  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  powerful  Koreish 
tribe.  He  began  life  as  a  shepherd.  At  twenty-five 
he  married  Kedija,  who  had  employed  him  as  camel- 
driver.  Travelling  extensively  for  her,  he  found  his 
fellow-countrymen  in  a  condition  of  religious  neglect. 
The  old  star-worship  and  fetichism  had  lost  their  force, 
just  as  in  more  classic  lands  we  saw  that  the  divinities 
of  Olympus  had  lost  their  meaning.  A  man  given 
much  to  solitary  contemplation,  he  yearned  for  some- 
thing better.  He  became  filled  with  fine  aspirations  to 
uplift  his  fellowmen.  In  the  solitude  of  the  wilderness 
he  experienced  strange  exaltations,  and  led  for  a  period 
an  ascetic  life,  spending  much  time  in  prayer.  Others 
like  himself,  groping  for  religious  truth,  were  brought 
in  contact  with  Jewish  and  Christian  colonies  in  Syria 


A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

and  Babylonia.  The  monotheistic  idea  of  Allah  (God) 
he  learned  from  Jewish  teachers.  A  highly  nervous 
nature,  he  "dreamed  dreams  and  saw  visions,"  and 
gave  vent  to  his  emotions  in  violent  outbursts.  It  was 
in  about  his  fortieth  year  that  he  felt  the  divine  call 
to  preach  God  to  his  benighted  Arabian  brethren  after 
the  manner  of  the  Hebrew  Prophets,  whose  works  had 
moved  him  deeply.  He  began  to  feel  that  perhaps  he 
was  the  ordained  Messiah  whom  the  Jews  awaited.  He 
had  read  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  in  the  more  highly 
colored  Midrashic  form.  From  what  he  thus  learned 
and  from  what  he  gathered  from  some  Baptists  and 
anchorite  ascetics,  together  with  his  own  religious  ex- 
perience, he  gradually  evolved  a  religion  for  his  peo- 
ple that  came  to  bear  his  name. 

He  reached  these  convictions  not  without  much  an- 
guish of  soul,  his  spirit  torn  by  doubt — the  true  experi- 
ence of  every  deep  religious  nature.  First  Kedijah, 
then  his  family,  then  a  small  circle  of  adherents,  gath- 
ered about  him,  convinced  of  his  divine  mission.  His 
vigorous  personality  attracted  many  more.  At  first 
his  purpose  was  not  to  teach  a  new  religion,  but  to 
reinforce  the  great  truths  recognized  by  the  noblest 
natures  in  all  times,  his  own  enthusiasm  contributing 
the  only  new  element.  As  with  Christianity,  the  hum- 
bler classes  were  first  attracted,  the  higher  holding 
aloof.  Like  the  Jews,  whose  principles  had  most  large- 
ly influenced  him,  he  preached  a  strict  monotheism. 
He  even  adopted  the  Jewish  dietary  laws. 

But  gradually  he  made  himself  the  centre  of  his 
message.  With  some  allies,  he  had  many  opponents, 


MAHOMET  215 

especially  as  he  denounced  the  idols  of  the  Kaaba  and 
rode  roughshod  over  many  of  the  cherished  traditions 
and  superstitions  of  the  Arabians.  This  brought 
against  him  persecution  from  the  people  of  Mecca.  For 
the  success  of  his  preaching  meant  the  withdrawal  of 
rich  revenues  from  the  pilgrims  who  came  to  the  "holy 
city."  A  breach  with  the  Arabians  was  a  breach  with 
the  world — a  living  death.  So,  for  a  moment  he  tem- 
porized and  was  prepared  to  make  a  quasi  acknowl- 
edgement of  the  old  divinities.  But  with  the  conver- 
sion of  his  uncle  and  one  Omar — a  man  like  himself 
of  great  force  of  character — he  took  a  rigid  stand 
again.  He  was  put  under  interdict  by  the  Koreish, 
his  own  family  tribe. 

In  the  meantime  he  suffered  much  privation.  Among 
the  people  of  Medina,  however,  his  preaching,  in  which 
he  referred  to  the  Jewish  Scripture  for  endorsement, 
received  more  kindly  recognition;  for  Jewish  teach- 
ing had,  as  it  were,  prepared  the  way.  This  meant 
new  converts.  So,  in  the  year  622  Mahomet  bade  all 
his  followers  emigrate  with  him  to  Medina.  This  was 
called  the  famous  HEGIRA  (flight),  and  marked  the 
turning  point  in  the  movement.  In  Medina  be  soon 
became  the  natural  chief  and  arbiter.  All  disputes 
hitherto  decided  by  combat  were  now  brought  to  him 
for  decision.  Thus  he  began  to  build  up  a  system  of 
law  and  justice.  Here  then  he  founded  a  religious  set- 
tlement, and  the  social  tone  was  raised.  The  bitter 
blood  feuds  were  modified,  property  rights  were  re- 
spected, and  the  position  of  woman  elevated.  He  had 
long  since  condemned  the  barbaric  Bedouin  practice  of 


216          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

putting  to  death  newly  born  daughters.  The  whole 
life  of  the  people  of  his  community  was  ordered  with 
a  kind  of  military  precision  in  which  the  battle  cry 
was,  "No  God  but  one  God." 

Unfortunately  his  motto  now  became,  "Who  is  not 
for  me  is  against  me."  This  meant  war  against  all 
outside  his  adherents. 

After  some  modification  the  Faith  inculcated  five 
cardinal  precepts:  I.  Confession  of  unity  of  God;  2. 
Stated  time  of  prayer;  3.  Alms  giving;  4.  Fast  of 
Ramadhan ;  5.  Festival  of  Mecca. 

His  most  daring  act  perhaps  was  breaking  with  that 
fundamental  principle  of  Arabian  life — blood  relation- 
ship. The  old  Arabian  ethics  had  concentrated  all  duty 
within  tribal  boundaries.  These  were  now  to  be  dis- 
regarded and  a  new  brotherhood  built  up,  that  of  Islam 
(submission) — a  religious  brotherhood  that  could  dis- 
regard even  the  holiest  ties  outside  of  it.  Yet  to  ask 
them  to  exchange  kinship  for  faith  was  an  unnatural 
demand.  This  long  meant  bitter  resistance. 

Medina  was  thus  made  a  Commonwealth,  his  fol- 
lowers an  army,  and  a  remorseless  conflict  was  waged 
with  all  who  refused  to  come  within  the  fold.  This 
brought  his  arms  against  the  Jews.  Thjeir  strongly 
fortified  castles  were  taken  one  by  one.  Completely 
to  break  with  the  old  regime,  he  even  ordered  his  fol- 
lowers to  attack  the  caravans  in  the  holy  month  of 
truce.  This  was  a  severe  test  of  their  faith.  Victory 
steadily  followed  his  aggressions  and  brought  him 
many  converts;  and  many  deputations  came  in  volun- 
tarily, dazzled  into  conviction  by  his  success. 


MAHOMET 


217 


In  630  he  had  conquered  Mecca.  This  was  called 
"The  Conquest."  Although  he  compelled  the  inhabi- 
tants to  give  up  their  idols,  he  compromised  so  far  as 
to  retain  the  Kaaba  and  the  Feast,  and  to  reinstate 
Mecca  as  a  holy  city.  Abraham  was  credited  with  be- 
ing the  father  of  the  ritual.  Fascinated  by  the  glamor 
of  his  remarkable  triumphs,  adherents  came  to  him 
from  all  sides.  What  other  creeds  have  taken  centuries 
to  attain,  he  achieved  in  his  lifetime.  This  too  rapid 
success  is  one  of  the  defects  of  his  movement.  It  grew 
too  fast  for  excellence.  So  some  of  his  successes  were 
failures,  for  to  obtain  them  the  spiritual  was  occasion- 
ally sacrificed  to  the  worldly. 

As  each  new  province  came  under  his  sway,  its  sub- 
mission was  to  be  exemplified  by  proclamation  of  Mue- 
din  for  prayer,  payment  of  alms-tax  and  acceptance  of 
the  Moslem  law.  But  their  internal  tribal  affairs  were 
left  untouched.  In  632,  in  the  eleventh  year  of  the 
Hegira,  Mahomet  died.  But  not  till  Arabia  was  at 
his  feet.  He  had  founded  a  Religion  and  a  State. 

NOTE. 

Islam  the  name  given  to  this  religion  and  Moslem  to 
its  followers  are  both  derived  from  a  word  meaning 
'submission'  (to  God.) 


2 18          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER    XXXIX. 
ISLAM  AND  THE  JEWS. 

Mahomet  never  forgave  the  Jews  for  their  refusal 
to  accept  him  as  "The  Prophet"  of  God  superseding  all 
others.  He  had  accepted  so  much  from  them — the 
fundamental  idea  of  monotheism,  the  Calendar,  the 
Sabbath,  the  Day  of  Atonement,  much  of  the  Scrip- 
ture and  Agada,  and  many  details  of  the  ceremonial 
Law.  He  asked  of  them  so  little — it  seemed — to  re- 
gard him  as  God's  chosen  and  supreme  messenger  to 
man,  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  Messiah,  whose 
advent  was  foretold  in  their  own  Scriptures,  to  whom 
they  must  now  look  for  the  interpretation  of  their  Faith. 
But  that  "little"  they  could  not  conscientiously  give. 
For  not  even  Moses,  their  only  recognized  lawgiver, 
"greatest  of  their  Prophets,"  were  they  prepared  to  re- 
gard quite  in  the  way  in  which  Mahomet  asked  alle>- 
giance.  Their  hearts  told  them  that  this  man  was  not 
sent  by  God  on  a  mission  to  them,  however  much  he 
may  have  been  sent  to  the  Arabians.  He  was  not 
their  Messiah.  So  to  accept  him  would  be  traitorous 
to  their  traditions  and  to  the  teachings  of  Scripture. 
(Deut.  xviii,  15-22).  For  the  acceptance  of  Mahomet 
would  have  ultimately  meant  the  stultification  of  their 
religion  and  its  submergence  in  a  new  cult  of  which  he 
would  be  the  founder.  At  that  rejection,  his  affection 
for  them  turned  to  hate,  and  instead  of  allies,  he  chose 
to  look  upon  them  as  rivals,  as  enemies  of  the  true 
Faith.  Their  endorsement  was  the  one  thing  needed 


ISLAM   AND  THE  JEWS  2IQ 

for  the  complete  confirmation  of  his  mission.  There- 
fore, forgetting  how  much  he  owed  to  their  spiritual 
treasures,  he  became  their  persecutor. 

How  history  was  repeating  itself!  Was  not  this 
identically  Israel's  experience  with  that  other  creed  to 
which  its  religion  had  given  birth — Christianity?  Its 
adherents  likewise  said  to  the  Jews,  "We  accept  your 
Scripture,  ethics  and  divinity.  Accept  only  from  us 
this  individual  Jesus,  greatest  of  all  prophets,  the 
Messiah  in  whom  all  your  prophecies  have  been  ful- 
filled, who  represents  God's  new  covenant  with  man." 
And  because  they  refused,  they  were  hated  and 
spurned. 

From  endeavoring  to  pattern  his  religion  as  closely 
as  possible  after  the  Jewish  example,  he  now  in  sullen 
resentment  sought  by  arbritary  changes  to  emphasize 
its  divergencies.  Instead  of  turning  to  Jerusalem  in 
prayer,  Mahometans  were  told  to  turn  to  Mecca.  He 
changed  the  Jewish  Yom  Kippur  (Ashura),  which  he 
had  adopted,  for  the  holy  mouth  of  Ramadhan.  He 
altered  the  Sabbath  from  Saturday  to  Friday.  Here 
again  was  a  parallel  experience  with  Christianity, 
which  after  three  hundred  years  changed  the  Sabbath 
to  Sunday  and  rearranged  its  Calendar  to  make  Easter 
independent  of  Passover.  Then  like  Christianity,  too, 
he  inserted  in  his  Scripture — the  Koran — unkind 
things  and  calumnies  about  the  Jews.  Yet,  on  the 
whole,  the  Koran  holds  up  many  Bible  characters  as 
exemplars. 

There  was  a  third  parallel  between  these  two 
daughters  of  Judaism.  Just  as  Christianity  to  win  the 


220  A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

heathen  to  the  fold  accepted  into  its  theology  many 
heathen  rites  and  even  beliefs,  so  now  Mahomet  to  win 
the  allegiance  of  the  heathen  Arabs,  conceded  to  many 
of  their  most  cherished  traditions.  The  Kaaba  Stone 
—an  idol — was  to  be  still  reverently  regarded  in  the 
new  Faith.  Lastly,  it  also  claimed  to  be  the  one  true 

universal  Faith. 

so 
Mahomet's  conception  of  the  future  life  was  not  -as 

spiritual  as  that  of  Jews  or  Christians.  In  offering 
grosser  pleasure  in  the  realms  beyond,  he  unconsciously 
gratified  the  expectations  of  grosser  natures. 

Let  us  hasten  over  the  sad  conflicts  between  Mahomet 
and  the  Jews — his  wars  against  their  powerful  chief- 
taincies, until  he  had  succeeded  in  crippling  their  once 
mightv  clans.  The  "Battle  of  the  Foss,"  627,  is  one 
of  the  unfortunate  blots  on  the  reputation  of  this  really 
great  man.  Seven  hundred  Jews  were  gathered  in  the 
market-place  and  offered  the  alternative  of  "the  Koran 
or  the  sword."  But  the  Jews  had  been  innured  to 
martyrdom.  There  was  no  hesitancy  in  their  choice. 
The  grim  warrior  prophet  carried  out  his  savage  threat 
against  them.  They  were  all  slain  and  the  surviving 
women  were  sold. 

All  through  Arabia  this  religious  crusade  was  waged 
against  them.  Thus  fell  the  city  of  Chaibar,  but  no 
such  ruthless  massacre  was  repeated.  Many  of  the 
defeated  Jews  were  even  left  in  possession  of  their 
lands.  They  continued  their  losing  fight  but  little 
longer  against  the  triumphant  advance  of  Mahomet. 
By  the  year  628  all  the  Jewish  tribes  had  lost  their 
independence;  the  sword  was  taken  from  them.  So 


ISLAM   AND  THE  JEWS  221 

that  era  of  arms  and  chivalry  was  now  closed  for  the 
Jews  of  Arabia. 

One  Jewish  woman,  Safir,  whom  Mahomet  had 
seized  as  a  concubine,  tried  to  be  a  Judith  to  her  people 
and  attempted  to  poison  Mahomet.  The  dish  was 
hardly  tasted  by  him,  so  the  plot  failed  and  she  paid 
with  her  life  for  her  daring. 

Mahomet  must  be  studied  from  the  political  side 
as  founder  of  a  great  State,  as  well  as  from  the  religious 
side  as  founder  of  a  great  religion.  Indeed,  he  was  a 
greater  statesman  than  prophet.  His  followers  be- 
lieved in  him  intensely  and  were  united  to  him  by  ties 
that  death  could  no  longer  break.  His  fiery  words 
embodied  in  the  Koran  became  their  inspired  Scripture. 
With  his  name  upon  their  lips,  the  great  watchword, 
"Allah  is  God  and  Mahomet  is  his  Prophet,"  these  fear- 
less warriors  carried  all  before  them.  Monotheism 
had  grown  a  great  power  in  half  a  century,  a  power  that 
had  come  to  stay.  Islam  is  accepted  by  nearly  two  hun- 
dred million  souls  to-day.  Here  was  surely  a  great 
message — lifting  the  Arab  from  the  slough.  We  see 
here,  as  in  the  rise  of  Christianity,  the  hand  of  Provi- 
dence bringing  light  to  the  Gentiles. 

Under  Mahomet's  successor,  Abu  Bekr,  there  was 
a  momentary  falling-off,  but  the  movement  rallied 
under  the  leadership  of  Omar,  who  followed  the  mas- 
ter's policy  of  spreading  the  new  Faith  by  conquest. 
At  the  head  of  the  Mosque  was  now  an  Emperor — a 
Caliph.  Not  so  many  years  after  Mahomet's  death, 
not  only  was  most  of  Arabia  Moslem,  but  the  sway  of 


222          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

Islam  had  reached  Persia,  conquered  the  land  and 
superseded  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.  Syria  and  Egypt 
were  next  wrested  from  the  Byzantian  or  Eastern  Ro- 
man Emoire.  Palestine  had  been  taken  from  Persia 
in  628  only  to  be  lost  again  in  638,  and  in  both  wars 
the  long-suffering  Jews  had  looked  to  the  incoming 
enemies  as  deliverers. 

What  many  changes  had  Jerusalem  seen!  When 
the  Jewish  Temple  was  destroyed,  it  became  a  heathen 
capital — Aelia  Capitolina,  adorned  with  a  heathen 
shrine.  In  its  Christian  era  it  became  a  bishopric. 
Under  the  Mahometans  a  mosque  held  the  place  of 
honor.  Such  it  remains  to-day. 

As  in  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  Europe,  so  Islam 
was  accepted,  not  by  individuals,  but  by  whole  nations. 
Somewhat  intolerant  at  first  against  opposing  creeds — 
some  of  the  Musselmen  were  fanatics — it  became  later 
renowned  for  its  breadth  and  enlightenment.  Very 
soon  the  Jews  found  the  Mahometans  their  friends, 
against  whom  they  had  nought  to  fear.  Jewish  poets 
began  to  hail  their  advent.  Even  in  Babylonia  the 
Moslem  sway  was  more  liberal  than  had  been  that  of  the 
Magi  in  the  latter  years.  The  Resh  Gelutha  was  given 
even  heartier  endorsement  and  was  treated  as  a  prince 
by  the  government,  with  his  civil  and  judicial  powers 
increased,  making  the  Jewish  community  in  Babylonia 
almost  a  State  in  itself.  Its  academies  at  Sora  and 
Pumbeditha  were  continued  without  a  break  and  the 
heads  of  the  former  called  GAONIM  (Illustrious)  had 
also  certain  judicial  powers  and  took  equal  rank  with 
the  Resh  Gelutha.  The  Jews  became  loyal  subjects  of 


ISLAM   AND  THE  JEWS  223 

the  Mahometan  rulers,  and  when  Caliph  All's  successor 
was  deposed  by  a  rival  house  (for  the  Mahometans 
had  also  now  split  into  two  wings) ,  the  Jews  came  gal- 
lantly to  his  support.  Here  and  there  Moslem  law  in 
its  freshest  and  noblest  expression  reacted  favorably 
even  on  Jewish  law.  It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
Jews  in  all  their  past  experience  were  necessarily  in- 
fluenced to  a  degree  by  their  environment,  while  re- 
maining loyal  in  all  essentials  to  the  traditional  con- 
ception of  Jewish  life. 

The  ceremony  of  the  inauguration  of  a  Resh  Gelutha 
was  henceforth  more  impressive  than  ever.  There  was 
quite  a  little  court  about  him.  Likewise  the  official 
organization  of  the  two  Academies  was  very  elaborate, 
with  their  President,  Chief  Judge,  Assembly  of  Teach- 
ers or  Senate,  and  their  Greater  and  Lesser  Sanhedrin. 
The  administration  left  its  lasting  impress  on  all  Jewish 
communities.  All  looked  now  to  Babylonia  as  their 
religious  centre  and  gladly  sent  contributions  toward 
its  maintenance.  Its  prestige  steadily  grew  with  the 
extension  of  Mahometan  sway. 

It  was  the  spread  of  this  great  power  that  was  to 
bring  relief  to  the  Jews  of  Spain,  persecuted  almost 
unto  death.  Verily  the  Moslem  was  unto  them  as  a 
savior — for  his  arrival  brought  liberty,  light  and  peace. 
After  having  subjected  a  large  part  of  Asia,  its  sway 
spread  unresistingly  eastward.  All  the  north  coast 
of  Africa  was  soon  under  both  its  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual control.  Christendom  was  alarmed  at  the  rise  of 
this  new  star,  and  the  checking  of  the  advancing  hosts 


224          A  THOUSAND  YEARS  OF  JEWISH  HISTORY. 

from  making  further  inroad  into  Europe  became  now 
the  first  duty  of  every  Christian  monarch.  Any  war- 
rior who  could  throw  them  back  from  his  country's 
border  at  once  sprang  into  fame. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  none  could  withstand 
them.  Nearer  and  nearer  they  approached  the  borders 
of  Spain.  The  outrageously  treated  Jews  awaited  their 
arrival  as  any  besieged  city  at  the  mercy  of  a  relentless 
foe  awaits  the  coming  of  its  army  of  release.  Already 
across  the  narrow  Straits  of  Gibraltar  on  the  African 
side,  they  were  making  common  cause  with  the  Mos- 
lems and  were  prepared  for  the  invasion  from  Africa 
to  Europe. 

The  destined  hour  arrived.  In  the  year  71 1  a  great 
battle  was  fought  at  Xeres,  in  which  the  last  Visigothic 
king  fell  before  the  army  of  Tarik.  City  after  city — 
Cordova,  Granada,  Malaga,  Toledo— fell  before  them, 
the  Jews  rendering  valuable  aid  from  within.  The 
Mahometans  found  they  could  not  entrust  their  con- 
quered towns  into  more  faithful  hands  than  these  Jew- 
ish allies.  Thus  the  Jews  were  raised  at  once  from 
their  degradation  and  thraldom  to  liberty  and  prestige. 
A  new  light  had  dawned,  and  under  the  broad  and  cul- 
tured regime  of  the  Moors,  as  these  Western  Mahome- 
tans were  called,  a  Golden  Age  was  now  to  dawn  for 
the  Jews  of  Spain. 


DIASPORA. 


J5  H  30  1  55  X  *O  L  *5  M  &0 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A    001  269  339    6 


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